《心理學與生活》1
07-09
《心理學與生活》序言(第一節)《心理學與生活》(18版,最新20版)教材是優秀的心理學入門教材。序言講授入門心理學,是任何學術界心理學家都需要面對的重大挑戰之一。實際上,由於這個領域的範疇,心理學或許就是在所有學院內最難以有效講解的學科。我們必須同時涵蓋微觀層面上對神經細胞活動過程的分析,和宏觀層面上對文化體系的分析;既(具)有健康心理(帶來)的活力,又有精神疾病導致的生活悲劇。我們的挑戰來自於編寫這本教材-----就像你們在教學中(遇到的)一樣,是要把所有這些信息歸納成(明確的)形式和內容;(同時)把它們生動的展現在你們的學生面前。(在)大多數時候,學生們帶著從社會上充斥著的「通俗(市井)心理學」中接受的有關心理學的錯誤觀念,走入這門學科。同時,他們對於自己想要從心理學這門學科中收穫到什麼,抱有很高的期望---他們希望學到更多對個人有益的知識,來幫助他們自己改善日常生活。實際上,對於任何老師,這是一種苛求。但是,我們堅信《心理學和生活》能夠幫助你們實現(他們的)願望。我們的目標是去編纂這樣一本教材:學生們既能夠體會到閱讀的樂趣,也能夠領悟到心理學中諸多領域的趣味和獨特之處。每個章節,每個句子,我們都字斟句酌,以確保學生們想要繼續閱讀下去。與此同時,我們把重心放在了如何使該教材,與那些崇尚以研究為中心同時兼顧應用的方式的講師們的教學大綱保持一致。《心理學與生活》第十八版,是Philip Zimbardo和Richard Gerrig的第五次合作。(在五次合著過程中,)我們之間形成了良好的合作關係,是因為我們共享一項承諾,即把心理學當作與人類幸福密切相關的科學來講授。我們兩個能夠把自己的教學經驗,應用到這本在科學嚴謹和生活實用兩者之間保持平衡的教材中。並且,Richard在認知心理學領域的專長是對Philip在社會心理學領域的專長的重要補充。Richard作為領編,使得《心理學與生活》能夠跟上心理學飛速發展的步調,特別是在認知和情感神經科學領域。儘管如此,《心理學與生活》依然是建立在如下理念上的合作:「我們共同為這樣一本教材,即兼顧心理學的現有傳統和持續吸納心理學中最重要見解的構想,並給你們的學生帶來(深遠)影響的教材,感到榮幸和自豪「。第十八版,就是這次合作的成果。序言(第二節)教材主旨:科學的心理學《心理學與生活》的目標,是用堅實的科學研究來抗衡心理學中的錯誤觀念。在我們的教學生涯中最清楚不過的事情之一,就是在(講授完)入門心理學的第一天,一大群學生在課後擠到老師周圍,準備提問。大體上(就是以下這些問題):「這門課程能教給我所需要了解的(知識)嗎?」「我媽媽在服用百憂解(一種葯):我們要不要了解那個是幹什麼的嗎?」「你會不會教給我們如何更加有效的學習?」「我得把我的兒子先送到日托幼兒園,然後再來這裡上課。這樣做,對他好不好?」「假如我有一個(經常)談起自殺的朋友,我該怎麼做?」我們(可以)安心的(告知大家),這裡面的每一個問題都經過了嚴謹的實證調查。《心理學與生活》致力於對學生們最深切的關注給予科學(嚴謹)的分析。由此,這本教材(所有的章節和欄目)都圍繞著一個中心主題:心理學,作為一門科學,(我們)側重於把這門科學應用到學生們的生活當中。新欄目!「生活中的批判性思維「《心理學與生活》的重要目標之一,就是講授心理學推理的科學原理。當我們的學生們向我們提問的時候---(例如:)他們需要了解什麼---通常他們已經根據信息的類型通過大眾媒體獲得了部分答案。在那些信息中,一部分信息是準確的,然而學生們經常陷於如何理解這些信息的困境。即他們如何學會去解釋並評估他們從媒體中獲取的信息?他們如何有效利用繁雜的研究調查信息和問卷調查信息?他們如何判斷這些信息來源的可靠性?為了消除來自這些所謂的可靠研究散布的(影響),我們為學生們提供了科學的工具,(讓他們)對充斥在自己周圍的信息做出批判性思維,並根據目標和研究方法得出適當的結論。(對於)這個新欄目,我們把它叫做「生活中的批判性思維」;我們力圖讓學生們直接面對決定性結論的實驗根據。我們的目標,並不是去固守在這個欄目中對於某個特定研究領域的明確答案,而是由此引發(學生們的)批判性思維並歡迎(各種)質疑。「生活中的批判性思維」欄目的主題,按章節:為什麼友誼結束了?(第一章)你如何評估網路上有關心理學的信息?(第二章)「那是遺傳」是什麼意思?(第三章)科技能恢復視覺嗎?(第四章)「搖頭丸」(類似的藥物)會傷害大腦嗎?(第五章)(對待犯錯誤的兒童),該打屁股,還是不該打屁股?(第六章)對記憶的研究如何有助於你準備考試?(第七章)政治家能預言未來嗎?(第八章)你會相信網站上的評價嗎?(第九章)日托會如何影響兒童的成長?(第十章)動機是如何影響學術成就的?(第十一章)健康心理學能夠幫助你在2010年之前成為一個身體健康的人嗎?(第十二章)在網路中,你是誰?(第十三章)「精神障礙」真的是一種(有效辯護)嗎?(第十四章)治療會影響大腦活動嗎?(第十五章)深夜電視廣告真的有效嗎?(第十六章)你如何獲得志願者?(第十七章)「生活中的心理學」欄目前邊我們引述的問題,是來自真實學生們的實際問題,並且你們的學生將會在教材中找到答案。這些問題代表了在過去數年中我們從學生們那裡收集到的數據。我們(就這樣)問道,「告訴我們,你們需要從心理學中了解到什麼,」並且,我們把這些問題---「來自學生們的聲音」---以「生活中的心理學」欄目的形式直接編排到了教材里。我們希望學生們通過每一個事例,清晰的理解為什麼心理學知識與他們的日常決定息息相關。「生活中的心理學」欄目的主題,按章節:心理學能幫助我找到自己的事業嗎?(第一章)問卷調查會影響你們的態度嗎?(第二章)為什麼音樂對你的感受會帶來影響?(第三章)為什麼吃「燙」的食物會痛?(第四章)你的睡眠充足嗎?(第五章)經典條件反射如何影響癌症治療?(第六章)為什麼老年痴呆症會影響記憶?(第七章)人們為什麼和如何撒謊?(第八章)智力理論(真的)有用嗎?(第九章)隨著你的年齡增長,大腦的運轉會有所不同嗎?(第十章)基因是如何對肥胖起作用的?(第十一章)為什麼一些人比其他人快樂?(第十二章)為什麼一些人會害羞?(第十三章)我們如何確定本性和教養之間的相互作用?(第十四章)人們會被壓抑的記憶困擾嗎?(第十五章)通過網路能建立穩定的關係嗎?(第十六章)和解(真的)可能嗎?(第十七章)序言(第三節)研究課題在原先的「觀點測試」(欄目中),大多數課題揭示了在心理學中關鍵課題背後的如何和為什麼。這些課題被精心編排進了該教材,(希望)學生們(充分)體會在閱讀(這些課題)過程中引發的全方位衝擊(洗禮)。示例主題包括:成年小白鼠視覺皮質的可塑性,冥想對大腦結構的影響,文化(背景)在區分出典型分類成員中的影響,在觀察細節時情感對記憶的影響(密集恐懼症和強迫症的童鞋),在親密行為的目的上的個體差異,(各種家庭)在對待兒童焦慮症上的(差異),在認知不協調(內心衝突)上的跨文化差異,以及基因對人身攻擊(術語註:多發於男孩)和社交中的算計(術語註:多發於女孩,成年男女)(等品行的)影響。該教材中將近200項課題中的多數(課題),是為該版本新添加的或者是修訂過的。具有教育學特色的(輔助學習)小欄目《心理學與生活》(儘力)維護著這樣一項美譽,即把心理學的科學性以一種具有挑戰性,同時適用於各種各樣學生的方式,展現出來,第十八版也不例外。為了強化學生們的閱讀體驗,我們編排了如下的幾個具有教育學特色的(輔助學習)小欄目。小結與回顧這個小欄目出現在每個主要片段的結尾處,並為學生們準備了引人深思的問題,(在他們繼續閱讀之前,)來檢驗他們對當前(閱讀)內容的掌握。要點複述:每個章節的收尾部分都包含一個全章概括;即要點複述,它總結了全章的內容,並按照章節內主要標題的順序,被羅列出來。關鍵術語:關鍵術語以粗黑體的形式出現在教材正文中,(同時,)為了方便快速瀏覽,在章節尾部(的關鍵術語小欄目)附有頁碼索引。新欄目!實戰測試:每個章節的收尾部分,還準備了一個根據章節正文內容和欄目內容制訂的多選題實戰測試。此外,(在這個收尾部分,)我們還準備了樣例隨想題目,期望學生們能夠用更加開闊的思維去理解該章節中的內容。多選題的答案包含在答案附錄中,同時,隨想題目的參考答案可以在教師手冊中找到。心理學能幫你找到事業么?第一章(心理學與生活)生活中的心理學心理學能夠幫助你找到事業么?如果你曾有一份你並不喜歡的工作,你可能很能體會缺乏工作動力是怎樣一種痛苦。你幾乎很難能忍受每天去上班報道的事實:像是度日如年。擁有一份成功的事業其中很重要的一部分取決於能否找到一份能夠提供各種挑戰與獎勵的工作,而這些挑戰與獎勵能夠滿足你的動力需求。(目前)研究人員已對職業與個體性格、價值觀、需求間的匹配關係進行了相關研究,相信你可能不會感到意外。為事業上的成功而保持動力十足,你可能需要一份自己感興趣的工作,並且這份工作能夠提供你認為值得的目標。「斯特朗興趣量表」是一項廣泛用于衡量職業興趣的測試指標,它最早由愛德華·斯特朗於1927年創製。為完成這樣一項測試,斯特朗首先要求幾組不同職業背景的男性說出他們喜歡或不喜歡的一些活動,然後將那些在特定工作領域獲得成功(的受試者)的答案與那些一般男性的答案進行比較以得出一份關係量表。這個測試的後續版本,包括2004年的升級版,加入了與女性受試者、新職業(這些因素)相關的量表。斯特朗興趣量表在構建個人喜惡與合適職業間的相關性上十分成功(Hansen & Dik, 2005)。如果你進行這項測試,職業顧問可(據此)告訴你與你有著同樣興趣愛好的人們一般會選擇哪些類型的工作,因為這些工作可能同樣吸引著你。假設你已採納那些諸如哪些工作適合自己為止奮鬥的建議,你將如何選擇一家企業呢——企業又會如何選擇你呢?人事心理學研究者們已經將注意力放在個體——組織適應的概念上——目的是為了(通過研究)使人們與他們的僱主企業間的適應性達到最大化(Dineen et al.,2002;Van vianen 2000)。一項研究項目已開始關注人們的性格與組織文化間的對應關係。考慮到「隨和性」的性格因素,該因將從「同情並善良」到「冷漠並多爭」的(多種性格)進行視為統一連續體(參見第13章),同時考慮到從支持型與團隊指向型的組織文化到進取型與成功指向型的組織文化的統一連續體(因素),你能清楚地知道這些維度是如何排列組織的。研究證明那些在「隨和性」性格因素一項上得分較高的求職者將傾向於那些文化上偏支持型與團隊指向型的企業(Judge & Cable, 1997),這類研究解釋了為什麼事業成功與否不單單關乎你自己的工作動力:同時還受到個體目標實現的偏好與企業偏好間的適應程度的影響。所以,怎樣一份事業將使你保持動力從而取得成功呢?生活中有著許許多多的兩難選擇,心理學家已經做了相關的研究幫助你做出這些重要決定。第一章(心理學與生活) 第一部分Why should you study psychology? Our answer to that question is quite straightforward: We believe that psychological research hasimmediate and crucial applications to important issues of everyday experience: your physical and mental health, your ability to form and sustain close relationships, and your capacity for learning and personal growth. One of the foremost goals of psychology and life is to highlight the personal relevance and social significance of psychological expertise.has:有著,具有immediate:即時form:發展capacity:空間,highlight:彰顯,突出social significance:對社會的重要性段落結構:提出問題->回答問題(微觀)->回答問題(宏觀)你們為什麼應該學習心理學?對於這個問題,我們的答案非常直截了當:我們相信心理學研究,在日常生活中的重大問題上有著即時和關鍵的應用:你們的身體健康和心理健康,你們的發展和維持緊密關係的能力,以及你們的學習能力和個人成長的空間。《心理學與生活》的首要目標之一,就是彰顯心理學學識與個人的相關性以及對社會的重要性。Every semester when we begin to teach, we are faced with students who enter an introductory psychology class with some very specific questions in mind. Sometimes those questions emerge from their own experience (「What should I do if I think my mother is mentally ill? 「 」Will this course teach me how to improve my grades?」); sometimes those questions emerge from the type of psychological information that is communicated through the popular press (「Is it true that oldest children are the most conservative」 「Are women really always better parents than men?」). The challenge for us as we teach the course is to bring the products of scientific research to bear on questions that matter to our students.enter:加入specfic:獨特the type of psychological information:貌似「心理學知識」的信息communicated:傳播的bear on:相關起來,聯繫起來段落結構:敘述場景(問題)->展開主題(學生)->展開主題(老師)在我們開始講授心理學課程的每個學期,我們總是面對著腦袋裡積存了不少獨特問題的加入入門心理學課程的學生。有時候,那些問題來自於他們的自身經歷(「如果我覺得媽媽精神不正常,我該做什麼?」「這門課程會不會教給我如何提高成績?」);還有些時候,那些問題來源於在大眾媒體中傳播的貌似心理學知識的信息(「最大的孩子是最為保守的,是真的嗎?」「是不是(作為父母,)婦女真的總是強於男人?」)。對於講授這門課程的我們來說,挑戰是把科學化研究的成果與學生們息息相關的各種問題聯繫起來。Research in psychology provides a continuous stream of new information about the basis mechanisms that governmental and behavior processes. As new ideas replace or modify old ideas, we are continually intrigued and challenged by the many fascinating pieces of the puzzle of human nature. We hope that, by the end of this journey through psychology, you too will cherish your store of psychological knowledge.provide:帶來mental:思維continualy:依然store:商店(美語),倉庫(英語)段落結構:陳述狀況->反響(行業里)->反響(學生們的)心理學研究帶來了源源不斷的有關支配思維和行為過程的基礎機制的新鮮信息。隨著新的理念取代或者修訂已有的理念,謎一樣的人性中的諸多令人痴迷的部分依然吸引著和挑戰著我們。我們希望,在這次心理學旅程的結束之時,你們也將珍愛自己的心理學知識樂園。Foremost in the journey will be a scientific quest for understanding. We will inquire about the how, what, when, and why of human behavior and about the causes and consequences of behaviors you observe in yourself, in other people, and in animals. We will explain why you think, feel, and behave as you do. What makes you uniquely different from all other people? Yet why do you often behave so much like others? And you molded by heredity, or are you shaped more by personal experience? How can aggression and altruism, love and hate, and madness and creativity exist side by side in this complex creature- the human animal? In this opening chapter, we consider how and why all these types of questions have become relevant to psychology』s goals as a discipline.understanding:思維,認知observe:觀察,觀測feel:感受到什麼molded:鑄造exist side by side:共存於consider:放在腦海中,講述as a discipline:作為一門科學訓練。段落結構:陳述目的->具體展開(如何做)->承接(聯繫到學生)->收尾(重述主題,鋪墊下文)這次旅程,首先是對(心理學)認知的一個科學探尋過程。我們將要詢問關於人類行為的如何,什麼,何時,和為什麼,以及關於你在自身上,別人那裡,和動物那裡觀察到的行為的緣由和後果。我們會在你思考,感受到什麼或者行事的時候,解釋你為什麼會那麼做。什麼地方讓你獨一無二的與眾不同?而你又為什麼經常那麼像其他人一樣行事?還有,你是由遺傳所鑄造,還是更多的由個人經歷所塑造?侵略性與捨己為人,愛與恨,瘋狂與創造力,如何能夠共存於這個複雜的生命體中--人類動物?在這開篇的一章,我們將要敘述,如何和為什麼諸如此類的所有問題都與作為一門科學訓練的心理學目標直接相關。What makes psychology unique?To appreciate the uniqueness and unity of psychology, you must consider the way psychologist define the field and the goals they bring to their research and applications. By the end of the book, we hope you will think like a psychologist. In this first section, we』ll give you a strong idea of what that might mean.bring to:設立a strong idea:一個清晰的觀點段落結構:主題(不斷思考)->預期結果->轉向段落主題什麼讓心理學與眾不同?為了領悟心理學的獨特性與整體性,你必須仔細思考心理學家們定義這個領域的方式,以及他們在研究和應用中設立的目標。在(你們)學完這部教材之時,我們希望你們將像心理學家一樣思考。在這第一段落,對於那將意味著什麼,我們將給出一個清晰的觀點。Definitions定義Many psychologists seek answers to this fundamental question: What is human nature? Psychology answers this question by looking at processes that occur within individual as well as forces that arise within the physical and social environment. In this light, we formally define psychology as the scientific study of the behavior of individuals and their mental processes. Let』s explore the critical parts of this definition: scientific, behavior, individual, and mental.look at:著眼於In this light(in light of):基於這個事實formally:正式,通常段落結構:主題(提出問題)->承接(論述方式)->回答問題->承接並鋪墊下文許多心理學家探尋如下根本問題的答案:人性是什麼?心理學通過著眼於發生在個體內的各種過程以及出現於自然條件下和社會環境下的多種驅動力,來回答這個問題。基於這個事實,我們通常把心理學定義為對個體們的行為及其思維過程的科學化研究。讓我們來探究一下這個定義的關鍵(組成)部分:科學化,行為,個體,思維。The scientific aspect of psychology requires that psychological conclusions be based on evidence collected according to the principles of the scientific method. The scientific method consists of a set of orderly steps used to analyze and solve problems. This method uses objectively collected information as the factual basis for drawing conclusions. We will elaborate on the features of the scientific method more fully in Chapter 2, when we consider how psychologists conduct their research.according to:遵循principle:準則feature:特點段落結構:主題(科學化方法)->承接(方式)->承接(作用)->收尾(留下伏筆)心理學的科學化這一方面,要求心理學結論(必須)是基於遵循科學化方法的準則從而收集到的證據。科學化方法是由一系列有序的步驟組成,被用來分析和解決難題。這套方法把客觀收集到的信息作為導出結論的事實基礎。當我們講到心理學家們如何展開研究的時候,在第二章,我們將詳盡的敘述科學化方法的特點。Behavior is the means by which organisms adjust to their environment. Behavior is action. The subject matter of psychology largely consists of the observable behavior of humans and other species of animals. Smiling, crying, running, hitting, talking, and touching are some obvious examples of behavior you can observe. Psychologists examine what the individual does and how the individual goes about doing it within a given behavioral setting and in the broader social or cultural context.the subject matter:主題段落結構:主題(行為)->承接(簡要,詳細說明)->承接(舉例)->收尾(概括)行為是有機體適應環境的各種方式。行為即活動。心理學的主題,大體上由人類和其他物種的動物的可觀測行為構成。嬉笑,哭泣,奔跑,撞擊,談論和接觸是一些你能觀察到的顯而易見的例子。心理學家們查看,在特定的行為場景下和廣闊的社會或者文化背景下的個體行為及其方式。The subject of psychological analysis is most often an individual --- a newborn infant, a teenage athlete, a college student adjusting to life in a dormitory, a man facing a midlife career change, or a woman coping with the stress of her husband』s deterioration from Alzheimer』s disease. However, the subject might also be a chimpanzee learning to use symbols to communicate, a white rat navigating a maze, or a sea slug responding to a danger signal. An individual might be studied in its natural habitat or in the controlled conditions of a research laboratory.deteroration:每況愈下navigating:穿梭於段落結構:主題(行為主體)->展開(舉例)->承接說明(個體)心理學分析的主體,大多時候是個體---一個初生的嬰兒,一個少年運動員,一個適應住宿生活的大學生,一個面對中年事業變化的男人,或者是一位應對來自丈夫每況愈下的老年痴呆症的壓力的婦女。可是,主體也可能是一隻學慣用符號來交流的黑猩猩,一隻穿梭於迷宮的小白鼠,或者是一隻應對危險信號的海蛞蝓。(這樣的)個體,可能在自然的生活環境下或者在科研實驗室的受控條件下被研究。Many researchers in psychology also recognize that they cannot understand human actions without also understanding mental processes, the workings of the human mind. Much human activity takes place as private, internal events---thinking, planning, reasoning, creating, and dreaming. Many psychologists believe that mental processes represent the most important aspect of psychological inquiry. As you shall soon see, psychological investigators have devised ingenious techniques to study mental events and processes--- to make these private experiences public.also:同時ingenious:精巧段落結構:主題(思維與行為的聯繫)->展開(舉例)->遞進(思維的重要性)->承接(進展)許多心理學研究者也認識到,不同時理解思維過程,即人類大腦的運作,他們就無法理解人類行為。大量的人類行為以私有的,內部事件而發生---(比如:)思考,計劃,推理,創造和做夢。許多心理學家確信思維過程代表了心理學探究中最為重要的一個方面。你將很快看到,心理學調查者們設計出精巧的技術手段來研究思維事件及其過程---(都是)為了讓那些個體私有的體驗顯露出來。The combination of these concerns defines psychology as a unique field. Within the social sciences, psychologists focus largely on behavior in individuals, whereas sociologists study the behavior of people in groups or institutions, and anthropologists focus on the broader context of behavior in different cultures. Even so, psychologists draw broadly from the insights of other scholars. Psychologists share many interests with researchers in biological sciences, especially with those who study brain processes and the biochemical bases of behavior. As part of the emerging area of cognitive science, psychologists』 questions about how the human mind works are related to research and theory in computer science, artificial intelligence, and applied mathematics. As a health science with links to medicine, education, law, and environmental studies---psychology seeks to improve the quality of each individual』s and the collective』s well-being.social sciences:人文科學,社會科學the broader context of behavior:更加廣義的行為(比如:文化異同,禁忌等)draw from:吸納well-being:福祉,幸福段落結構:主題(人文科學的分工與合作)->展開(分工)->轉折(共同的興趣愛好)->展開(合作)這些要點合起來就把心理學定義成了一個獨一無二的領域。在人文科學中,心理學家們大體上專註於個體們的行為,而社會學家們研究群體及機構中人們的行為,人類學學家們則側重於不同文化下更加廣義的行為。即便如此(分工),心理學家們廣泛的吸納其他(領域)學者的洞見。心理學家們與生物科學研究者們,特別是那些研究大腦思維過程和行為的生物化學基礎的,共享著許多愛好。作為認知科學的新興領域的一部分,心理學家們的「人類思維如何運轉」的問題,與計算機科學和人工智慧以及應用數學的研發與理論相關。(同時,)作為一門與醫藥,教育,法律,環保研究關聯的健康科學,心理學力圖於提高每個個體的和群體的幸福水準。Although the remarkable breadth and depth of modern psychology are a source of delight to those who become psychologists, these same attributes make the field a challenge to the student exploring it for the first time. There is so much more to the study of psychology than you might expect initially--- and, because of that, there will be also much of value that you can take away from this introduction to psychology. The best way to learn about the field is to learn to share psychologists』 goals. Let』s consider those goals.remarkable:令人震驚的attributes:特點so much more to:沒完沒了的,太多的Much of value:更具有價值段落結構:主題(深度與廣度)->承接(學習內容)->承接(學習收穫)->鋪墊下文(方法)雖然現代心理學的令人震驚的廣度和深度,是成為了心理學家的那些人的快樂之源,正是這些特點,對於初次涉足的學生們來說,意味著一種挑戰。心理學學習中有著太多的內容,可能超出了你最初的預想---同時,正因為如此,你從入門心理學中取得的收穫也將更具有的價值。學習這個領域的最佳方式,是學會分享心理學家們的目標。讓我們一起來看看那些目標。第一章 (心理學與生活)第一部分為什麼要研究心理學?這個問題的答案十分簡單明了:人們相信心理學研究對每天所經歷的重要事件有著直接的和決定性的作用,例如人們的身心健康、建立和維繫持親密關係的能力以及學習能力和個人成長。突顯心理學專業知識的個人關聯和社會意義是心理學與生活最重要的目標之一。每學期開始教學時我們都會遇到一些因某些心理問題而參加引導心理學課程的學生。有時候這些問題在他們的個人經歷中呈現出來(如果我認為母親有心理疾病時該怎麼做?這些課程如何教我提升自己的分數?);有時問題也會在大眾人群交流的心理信息中體現出來(年齡最大的孩子也最保守是真的嗎?女人相對男人總是最好的父母嗎?)把科學研究的成果同我們學生的問題相關聯是我們教授課程的挑戰。心理學研究表證明了有關控制精神和行為過程的基本原理中一些不斷更新地新信息。當新思想取代或者修正了就思想,人們還是不斷地被許多有關人性的迷人的難題所吸引和挑戰。在這次心理學旅程的最後,我們希望能夠珍惜你學到的心理學知識。這次探索中最重要的是對理解的科學追求。我們會調查人類行為的怎麼樣、是什麼和為什麼,也會調查自我觀察、觀察他人和動物的行為的原因及重要性。我們會解釋你為什麼這樣想、這樣感覺和這樣做。什麼讓你與其他人與眾不同?為什麼你經常和其他人表現的如此相像?你是遺傳塑造的還是更多的受個人經歷影響?侵略與無私、愛與恨以及瘋狂與創造是怎樣對立存在於類人動物這種複雜的物種。在這一開放的章節里,我們將會考慮所有的這些問題是怎樣以及為什麼會變得與作為一門學科的心理學的目標有關。什麼讓心理學與眾不同?為了領會心理學的獨特性和協調性,你就必須考慮心理學家定義該領域的方式和他們研究與應用的目的。書的最後,我們希望你可以像一個心理學家那樣思考。在第一個小節,我們會讓你深刻了解這意味著什麼。定義許多心理學家尋找根本問題的答案:人的本質是什麼?心理學通過觀察存在的個人變化過程以及自然界和社會環境中新出現的勢力來回答這個問題。就此而言,我們通常把心理學定義為對個體行為和心理過程的科學研究。讓我們探索定義中的關鍵部分:科學的、行為、個體的和心理的。心理學的科學方向要求心理學結論要依賴於收集的證據,而這些證據的收集要符合科學方法的原則。科學系統的程序是由一系列用來解析解決問題的、有條理的步驟構成的。這種程序客觀地收集信息,作為得出結論的真實依據。當需要考慮心理學家如何進行研究時,我們會在第二章節更加詳細闡述科學方法的特點。行為是有機體適應生存環境的途徑。行為就是行動。心理學受影響的因素很大程度上包括了人類和其他種類動物的顯著行為。微笑、哭泣、跑步、擊打、交談和接觸,這些是你可以觀察到地明顯的行為例子。心理學家會調查個體在一個既定的行為設置和廣大的社會或文化環境中做什麼以及怎樣開始做。心理學解釋的主體大多經常是個體——新生嬰兒、十幾歲的運動員、正在適應新宿舍生活的大學生、面對終身事業發生變化的男人或者是處理來自丈夫阿爾茨海默病惡化壓力的女人。然而,課題也可能是學慣用符號交流的黑猩猩、穿越迷宮的小白鼠或者是回應危險信號的海參。可能研究個體自身的自然習性,也可能是在研究實驗室特定環境中的情況。很多心理學研究者認識到:如果在沒有獲悉心理過程和人的思想活動時,他們無法理解人的行動。人類的多數行為活動都是個人內在的事件——思考、計劃、推理、創造和夢想。許多心理學家相信心理過程代表著心理探索的最重要方面。你會很快明白,心理研究者想出了具有獨創性的技術來研究心理事件和過程,並將這些個人經歷公佈於眾。這些關係的組合讓心理學成為獨一無二的領域。在社會學科中,心理學家主要關注個體的行為;而社會學家則研究群體下人們的行為;人類學家注重不同文化大背景下的行為。正是如此,心理學家廣泛汲取其他學者的深刻見解。心理學家同生物科學研究者分享了許多趣味性研究,特是和那些研究大腦工作以及生物化學基礎行為的人。作為認知科學新興的一部分,心理學家們有關人類思想如何工作的問題與計算機學、人智能以及應用數學的研究理論有著關聯。作為一門健康科學,心理學同醫學、教育、法學和環境研究有著關聯,並且心理學力圖提升個人素質和集體幸福感。現代心理學的非凡寬度和深度不但是那些成為心理學家的快樂源泉;同時對於第一次接觸心理學的學者來說,這些特徵也是一個挑戰。你最初所期待的心理學研究是如此之多,也正是如此,你同樣有著許多遠離心理學的關鍵理由。學習心理學的最好方法是學會分享心理學家的目標。讓我們細想這些目標。第一章(心理學與生活)第二部分THE GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGY心理學的目標The goals of the psychologists conducting basic research are to describe, explain, predict, and control behavior. These goals form the basis of the psychological enterprise. What is involved in trying to achieve each of them?enterprise:研究規劃段落結構:段落主題->承接(重要性)->鋪墊下文心理學家們開展初級研究的目標,是為了描述,解釋,預測和支配行為。這些目標構成了心理學研究規劃的基礎。(讓我們來看一下),努力達成的每一個目標里,包含著什麼?Describing What Happens the first task in psychology is to make accurate observations about behavior. Psychologists typically refer to such observations as their data (data is the plural, datum the singular). Behavior data are reports of observations about the behavior of organisms and the conditions under which the behavior occurs. When researchers undertake data collection, they must choose an appropriate level of analysis and devise measures of behavior that ensure objectivity.undertake:著手measure:參數,維度段落結構:主題(描述行為)->承接(論述觀測內容)->承接(具體做法)描述發生的行為:心理學中的首要任務,是對行為做出準確的觀測。心理學家們通常把這樣的觀測,簡稱為數據。行為數據就是對有機體的行為及其出現條件的觀測報告。當研究人員著手數據採集的時候,他們必須選擇一種層次適宜的分析並且設計出確保客觀性的行為參數。In order to investigate an individual』s behavior, researchers may use different levels of analysis---from the broader, most global level down to the most minute, specific level. Suppose, for example, you were trying to describe a painting you saw at a museum (see figure 1.1). At a global level, you might describe it by title, bathers, and by artist, George Seurat. At a more specific level, you might recount features of the painting: some people are sunning themselves on a riverbank while others are enjoying the water, and so on. At a very specific level, you might describe the technique Seurat used ---tiny points of point---to create the scene. The description at each level would answer different questions about the painting.investgate:系統的研究broader:廣義recount:細述,細細道來more specific:更加明確的段落結構:主題(多種層次的描述)->承接(舉例)->概括鋪墊為了系統的研究某個個體的行為,研究者可能會採用不同層次的分析---從廣義的最全局的層面到最細微的特定層面。設想,假如你正在儘力描述在博物館裡看到的一幅畫(如圖1.1,Bathers at Asnieres)。在某個全局層面上,你也許會用標題,阿尼埃爾的浴場,和作者,喬治修拉,來描述它。在某個更加明確的層面上,你也許會細述畫的內容:一些人在河岸上享受日光浴,而另外一些人在嬉水,等等。倘若在一個非常明確的層面上,你可能會描述喬治修拉用來構成畫面的技法---「細膩繽紛的小點」。(可見,)每個層面上的描述,將回答關於這幅畫的不同問題。Different levels of psychological description also address different questions. At the broadest level of psychological analysis, researchers investigate the behavior of the whole person within complex social and cultural contexts. At this level, researchers might study cross-cultural differences in violence, the origins of prejudice, and the consequences of mental illness. At the next level, psychologists focus on narrower, finer units of behavior, such as speed of reaction to a stop light, eye movements during reading, and grammatical errors made by children acquiring language. Researchers can study even smaller units of behavior. They might work to discover the biological bases of behavior by identifying the places in the brain where different types of memories are stored, the biochemical changes that occur during learning, and the sensory paths responsible for vision or hearing. Each level of analysis yields information essential to the final composite portrait of human nature that psychologists hope ultimately to develop.address:應對narrow:緊湊的finer units of behavior:清晰的行為單元develop:發展出,建立起來段落結構:主題(心理學中的多層次描述)->承接(舉例)->概括(作用)不同層面上的心理學描述同樣能夠應對不同的問題。心理學分析中,在最為寬泛的層面上,研究者探究在複雜的社會和文化背景下整個人的行為。在這個層面上,研究者們或許會考察暴力,先入為主的起源,和精神疾病的後果的跨文化差異。在下一個層面,心理學家們專註於緊湊的,清晰的行為單元,例如對紅燈的反應速度,閱讀時眼球的運動,和學習語言的兒童們出現的語法錯誤等。研究者們甚至能夠研究更加細微的行為單元。他們也許會通過確認在大腦中不同類型的記憶的存儲位置,在學習時發生的生物化學變化,和負責視覺和聽覺的感測路徑,來努力揭示行為的生物學基礎。每個層面上的分析為終極的,心理學家們期望最終建立起來的人性的複合全貌,都提供了至關重要的信息。However tight or broad the focus of the observation, psychologists strive to describe behavior objectively. Collecting the facts as they exist, and not as the researcher expects or hopes them to be, is of utmost importance. Because every observer brings to each observation his or her subjective point of view---biases, prejudices, and expectations---it is essential to prevent these personal factors from creeping in and distorting the data. As you will see in the next chapter, psychological researchers have developed a variety of techniques to maintain objectivity.expect:期望(客觀結果)hope:希望(主觀如何)段落結構:主題(客觀描述)->承接(方法及理由)->留下鋪墊無論觀測的焦點是寬泛的還是具體的,心理學家們都努力去客觀的描述行為。收集自然存在的數據,而不是像研究者所期望的客觀或者主觀希望那樣的數據,是至關重要的。因為,每個觀測者都會把他或者她的主觀觀點---偏見,先入為主以及期望---引入到觀測中。所以,預防這些個人因素混淆和歪曲數據,是必要的。你將在下一章看到,心理學研究者們發展出多種技術手段來保證客觀性。Explaining What Happenswhereas descriptions must stick to perceivable information, explanation deliberately go beyond what can be observed. In many areas of psychology, the central goal is to find regular patterns in behavioral and mental processes. Psychologists want to discover how behavior works. Why do you laugh at situations that differ from your expectations of what is coming next? What conditions could lead someone to attempt suicide or commit rape?stick to:貼緊go beyond:遠離,超出regular:常見段落結構:引出主題(對比)->承接(方法及理由)->留下鋪墊解釋發生的行為描述行為必須貼緊可感知的信息,而解釋行為往往遠離能夠觀測到的(行為)。在心理學的許多領域,核心目標是找出行為和思維過程中的常見模式。心理學家們想要揭示行為是如何運作的。你為什麼會在隨後的事情出乎你的預料的場合下發笑?什麼樣的場景會誘使某個人去自殺或強姦?Explanations in psychology usually recognize that most behavior is influenced by a combination of factors. Some factors operate within the individual, such as genetic makeup, motivation, intelligence level, or self-esteem. These inner determinants tell something special about the organism. Other factors, however, operate externally. Suppose, for example, that a child tries to please a teacher in order to win a prize or that motorist trapped in a traffic jam becomes frustrated and hostile. These behaviors are largely influenced by events outside the person. When psychologists seek to explain behavior, they almost always consider both types of explanations. Suppose, for example, psychologists want to explain why some people start smoking. Researchers might examine the possibility that some individuals are particularly prone to risk taking (an internal explanation) or that some individuals experience a lot of peer pressure (an external explanation) ---or that both a disposition towards risk taking and situational peer pressure are necessary (a combined explanation).self-esteem:自尊,自負prone to:易於,喜歡a disposition toward risk taking:愛冒險的性情necessary:必要的,存在的段落結構:主題(解釋行為的方式)->承接(內在)->承接(外在)->承接(實際狀況)心理學中的解釋,通常認為大多數行為是受到了複合因素的影響。某些因素,在個體內部起作用,例如基因組合,動機,心智水平,自尊。這些內在的決定因素會告訴(我們)該個體的獨特之處。然而其他的因素,則在外部發揮作用。設想,比如一個孩子為了獲得某個獎項而儘力取悅老師,或者一個陷入交通堵塞的經常開車的司機會變得沮喪和充滿敵意。這些行為很大程度上受到了自身之外的事件的影響。當心理學家試圖解釋行為的時候,他們幾乎總是考慮這兩種類型的解釋。設想,假如心理學家們想要解釋為什麼一些人開始抽煙。研究者們可能會查看,某些人是否特別喜歡冒險(一種內在的解釋),或者某些人感受到了大量的同伴壓力(一種外在的解釋),或者喜歡冒險的性情和場合下的同伴壓力二者並存的可能性(一種複合的解釋)。Often a psychologist』s goal is to explain a wide variety of behavior in terms of one underlying cause. Consider a situation in which your teacher says that to earn a good grade; each student must participate regularly in class discussions. Your roommate, who is always well prepared for class, never raises his hand to answer questions or volunteer information. The teacher chides him for being unmotivated and assumes he is not bright. That same roommate also goes to parties but never asks anyone to dance, doesn』t openly defend his point of view when it is challenged by someone less informed, and rarely engages in small talk at the dinner table. What is your diagnosis? What underlying cause might account for this range of behavior? How about shyness? Like many other people who suffer from intense feelings of shyness, your roommate is unable to behave in desired ways (Zimbardo & Radl, 1999). We can use the concept of shyness to explain the full pattern of your roommate』s behavior.engage:參與到account for:解釋,說明desired:合乎邏輯的,要求的段落結構:主題(另一種方式)->承接(舉例)->承接(分析三種可能性)->概括例子經常的,心理學家們的另一目標是用一種潛在的緣由去解釋多種多樣的行為。考慮以下情形:你的老師說了「為了獲得好成績,每個學生必須定期參加課堂討論」。你的室友,那個通常精心準備課程的同屋,從來不舉手回答問題或者主動提供信息。老師斥責他不夠積極主動,並認為他不聰明。同樣這位室友也經常參加聚會,卻從來不邀請別人跳舞,在他受到學識不如他的人的質問的時候,也不會公開捍衛自己的觀點,並且很少參與到飯桌上的閑談。(對此,)你的診斷是什麼?什麼樣的潛在緣由能夠解釋這一系列的行為?害羞怎麼樣?就像其他受到強烈害羞而困擾的人們一樣,你的室友無法以合乎邏輯的方式去行事(Zimbardo & Radl, 1999)。我們可以採用害羞的概念來解釋你室友的行為的完整模式。To forge such causal explanations, researchers must often engage in a creative process of examining a diverse collection of data. Master detective Sherlock Holmes drew shrewd conclusions from scraps of evidence. In a similar fashion, every researcher must use an informed imagination, which creatively synthesizes what is known and what is not yet known. A well-trained psychologist can explain observations by using her or his insights into the human experience along with the facts previous researchers have uncovered about the phenomenon in question. Much psychological research attempts to determine which of several explanations most accurately accounts for a given behavior pattern.forge:形成casual:因果關係的use:發揮informed:基於充分事實和可靠邏輯的along with:輔以段落結構:主題(現實狀況)->承接(類比)->承接(宏觀科研角度)->概括收尾為了形成這樣的因果關係的解釋,研究者們必須經常置身於某個檢查千差萬別的數據集的創造性過程。大偵探福爾摩斯能從細枝末節的證據中得出精闢的結論。與之類似,每個研究者必須發揮基於充分事實和可靠邏輯的想像,從已知的和未知的信息中創造性地合成(解釋)。一個受過良好訓練的心理學家,能夠通過運用他或者她對人們經歷的洞察力,輔以前輩們從那些現象中揭開的事實,來解釋觀測到的行為。大量心理學研究,試圖確定導致某種行為模式的數個解釋中最為確切的那幾個。第一章(心理學與生活)第三節Predicting What Will HappenPredictions in psychology are statements about the likelihood that a certain behavior will occur or that a given relationship will be found. Often an accurate explanation of causes underlying some form of behavior will allow a researcher to make accurate predictions about future behavior. Thus, if we believe your roommate to be shy, we could confidently predict that he would be unconformable when asked to have a conversation with a stranger. When different explanations are put forward toaccount for some behavior or relationship, they are usually judged by how well they can make accurate and comprehensive predictions. If your roommate was to blossom in contact with a stranger, we would be forced to rethink our diagnosis.allow to:有助於,提供了可能性put forward to:提出by:根據in contact with a stranger:與陌生人接觸blossom: 活躍段落結構:主題(預測行為)->展開(解釋與預測)->承接(承接上文例子)->展開(多種解釋時)預測將要發生的行為心理學中的預測是對某個既定行為將要出現或者某種特定聯繫會被發現的可能性的陳述。通常,對某種行為的潛在緣由的確切解釋,有助於研究人員對其未來的行為做出準確的預測。由此,如果我們認定你的室友是(出於)害羞,我們可以信心十足的預測,當他被要求與一個陌生人對話的時候,他會變得不知所措。倘若促成某些行為或者聯繫的多種解釋被提出來,(我們)通常根據它們做出了何種程度的準確而全面的預測,做出判斷。如果你的室友與陌生人接觸時變得異常活躍,我們將被迫重新考慮我們的診斷。Just as observations must be made objectively, scientific predictions must be worded precisely enough to enable them to be tested and then rejected if the evidence does not support them. Suppose, for example, a researcher predict that the presence of a stranger will reliably cause human and monkey babies, beyond a certain age, to respond with signs of anxiety. We might want to bring more precision to this prediction by examining the dimension of 「stranger」. Would fewer signs of anxiety appear in a human or a monkey baby if the stranger were also a baby rather than an adult, or if the stranger were the same species rather than of a different one? To improve future predictions, a researcher would create systematic variationsin environmental conditions and observe their influences on the baby』s response.signs of anxiety:表情焦慮bring more precision to:加以明確說明variations:差異化environmental condition:環境場景,實驗場景段落結構:主題(預測方式)->承接(上文例子)->概括收尾(提高準確度)正如觀測必須保證客觀性,科學的預測必須用足夠精確的詞語來描述,以便於接受檢驗;倘若證據不支持,預測便會被放棄。設想,假如有一位研究者預測,陌生人的出現必然會引發達到了一定年齡的人類和猴子的幼兒做出表情焦慮的反應。經過審視「陌生人」的範圍,我們可能需要對此預測加以明確的說明。如果陌生人也是一個嬰兒而非成人,或者陌生人是同類而不是其他物種,人類或者猴子的幼兒會不會只是略微的焦慮?為了提高未來預測的準確程度,研究者將會在實驗場景下,創建一套系統的差異化實驗,並觀察其對幼兒反應的影響。Controlling What HappensFor many psychologists, control is the central, most powerful goal. Control means make behavior happen or not happen---starting it, maintaining it, stopping it, and influencing its form, strength, or rate of occurrence. A causal explanation of behavior is convincing if it can create conditions under which the behavior can be controlled.starting:觸發powerful:雄心勃勃段落結構:主題(支配的方式)->展開(方式)->概括收尾(解釋與支配的關係)支配行為的發生對於許多心理學家來說,支配是核心的,最為雄心勃勃的目標。支配意味著讓某個行為發生或者不發生---觸發它,維持它,打斷它,(甚至)影響它的形式,強度或出現頻率。如果根據某種因果關係的解釋,能夠構造出支配某項行為的環境條件,該解釋就是具有說服力的。The ability to control behavior is important because it gives psychologists ways of helping people improve the quality of their lives. Throughout Psychology and Life, you will see examples of types of interventions psychologists have devised to help people gain control over problematicaspects of their lives. Chapter 15, for example, discusses treatments for mental illness. We also describe how people can harness psychological forces to eliminate unhealthy behaviors like smoking and initiate healthy behaviors like regular exercise (see chapter 12). You will learn what types of parenting practices can help parents maintain solid bonds with their children(chapter 10); you will learn what forces make strangers reluctant to offer assistance in emergency situations and how those forces can be overcome (chapter 17). These are just a few examples of the broad range of circumstances in which psychologists use their knowledge to control and improve people』s lives. In this respect, psychologists are a rather optimistic group; many believe that virtually any undesired behavior pattern can be modified by the proper intervention. Psychology and Life shares that optimism.examples:實例interventions:介入治療gain control over:駕馭harness:借用,藉助practices:實踐,技巧virtually:實際上段落結構:主題(支配的意義)->承接(客觀舉例)->概括收尾(意義的影響)支配行為的能力是重要的,因為它賦予了心理學家們多種幫助他人改善生活的方式。縱覽《心理學與生活》,你將會看到各種各樣的心理學家們設計出的用來幫助他人駕馭生活中不如意的那些方面的介入治療實例。比如:在第十五章,討論了精神疾病的治療手段。我們還將敘述人們如何駕馭心理學的力量,消除像吸煙那樣的不利於健康的行為,並且開始像定期鍛煉身體那樣的有利於健康的行為(見第十二章)。在第十章,你將了解到什麼類型的養育技巧有助於父母保持與子女的緊密聯繫。在第十七章,你將了解到什麼樣的阻力促使陌生人在緊急狀況下不情願提供幫助,以及如何克服這些阻力。這些,對於眾多的,心理學家們運用他們的學識來支配和改善人們生活的場景來說,只是一小部分例子。出於這種情形,心理學家們是一個相當樂觀的群體;大多認為實際上任何不適宜的行為模式,都可以通過適當的介入治療來改善。《心理學與生活》也抱有同樣的樂觀態度。Stop and Review小結與回顧What are the four components of the definition of psychology?What four goals apply to psychologists who conduct research?Why is there often a close relationship between the goals of explanation and prediction?apply to:聯繫緊密心理學定義的四個組成部分,是什麼?與開展研究的心理學家們聯繫緊密的四個目標,是什麼?在解釋的目標和預測之間,為什麼經常有一種密切的聯繫?《心理學與生活》第一章 第三部分預測會發生什麼。心理學中的預測是關於某種行為將會發生的可能性,或者一種給定的關係被發現的潛在性。通常,某種行為發生的原因的精確解釋可以讓研究人員對其將來的行為做出準確的預測。如果我們認定你的室友是害羞的,那麼我們能非常自信得預測:如果讓他與陌生人談話,他是會感到很局促不安的。當針對某種行為或者關係提出不同的解釋的時候,那麼通常我們要看預測的精確性和詳盡程度。如果你的室友在於陌生人接觸的時候非常自信,那麼我們就不得不需要重新思考我們的判斷了。正如觀察必須客觀一樣,科學預測也必須要足夠精確,要經得起檢驗,如果證據不支持的話,就將其否決掉。假設,比如,一名研究人員預測陌生人的出現肯定會導致某年齡段以上的嬰兒和幼猴產生焦慮。我們通過探討「陌生人」的維度,來使預測更加精確。如果陌生人也是一個嬰兒而不是成年,或者陌生人是同類生物的話,嬰兒或幼猴會不會不那麼焦慮?為了提高預測未來的精確程度,研究人員將會在不同環境條件下創造系統性差異,並且觀察對嬰兒或幼猴的反應的影響。控制將要發生的事情。對於許多心理學家來說,控制是最重要的,最有效的目標。控制是指讓事情發生或不發生---它的開始、延續、停止,以及對它的形式、強度或發生頻率的影響。一種行為的非正式解釋是令人信服的,如果它可以創造行為被控制的條件。控制行為的能力很重要,因為它使心理學家可以幫助人們改善他們的生活質量。在《心理學與生活》這本書中,你將會看到心理學家們使用不同類型的介入方式來控制人們生活中的種種問題。比如,在第十五章中,討論了精神疾病的治療方法。我們還描述了人們如何利用心理因素來消除不健康的行為習慣,比如吸煙;並且養成健康的行為習慣,比如經常鍛煉(見第十二章)。你將了解到怎麼樣的養育子女的做法可以保持父母與孩子之間堅固的關係(見第十章);你將學習到是什麼因素使陌生人不願在緊急情況下提供援助,以及如何克服這些因素(見第十七章)。這些僅僅是心理學家運用自己的知識來控制和改善人們生活的幾種情況。在這種情況下,心理學家是相當樂觀的一群人;許多人認為幾乎所有不受歡迎的行為模式都能夠通過適當的干預來加以修正。《心理學與生活》分享了那種樂觀。停一停,複習一下1.心理學定義的四個組成部分是什麼?2.心理學家進行研究的四個目標是什麼?3.為什麼解釋和預測的目標之間常常有密切的關係?第一章(心理學與生活) 第四部分Chapter 1 (Psychology and Life) Part 4THE EVOLUTION OF MODERN PSYCHOLOGY現代心理學的演變In the 21st century, it is relative easy to define psychology and to state goals of psychological research. As you begin to study psychology, however, it is important to understand the many forces that led to the emergence of modern psychology. At the core of this historical review is one simple principle: Ideas matter. Much of the history of psychology has been characterized by heated debates about what constitutes the appropriate subject matter and methodologies for a science of mind and behavior.understand:了解characterized:以。。。為特徵,充滿了debate:爭論,辯論段落結構:引子(引出主題)->主題(心理學歷史)->承接(動力的實質)->承接概括(實質的影響)在21世紀,定義心理學並陳述心理學研究的目標是相對容易的。然而,當你開始學習心理學,就有必要了解促使現代心理學創立的多種驅動力。這個歷史回顧的精華,是一條簡單的真理:理念發揮了作用。在心理學的大部分發展歷程中,充滿了作為一門研究思維和行為的科學的適宜的主題及其相應方法的激烈爭論。Our historical review will be carried out at two levels of analysis. In the first section, we will consider the period of history in which some of the critical groundwork for modern psychology was laid down. This focus will enable you to witness at close range the battle of ideas. In the second section, we will describe in a broader fashion seven perspectives that emerged in the modern day. For both levels of focus, you should allow yourself to imagine the intellectual passion with which the theories evolved.two levels of analysis:兩個層面的分析groundwork:基礎性工作(微觀),基礎(宏觀)lay down:確立,明確in a broader fashion:總體上,概要的intellectual passion:創新熱情段落結構:主題(兩個層面)->展開(早期)->展開(後期)->概括(理念之爭的實質)我們的歷史回顧將以兩個層面的分析展開。在第一個段落(第一層面),我們將陳述現代心理學的關鍵的基礎性工作被確立的那段歷史時期。這個側重點,能夠讓你近距離目睹那些理念之爭。在第二個段落(第二層面),我們將概要的敘述出現在當今的七個視角。對於這兩個層面的側重點,你自己應該試著想像一下(引領)理論發展的創新熱情。PSYCHOLOGY』S HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS現代心理學的歷史基石「Psychology has a long past, but only a short history,」 wrote one of the first experimental psychologists, Hermann Ebbinghaus (1908/1973). Scholars had long asked important questionsabout human nature---about how people perceive reality, the nature of consciousness, and the origins of madness---but they did not possess the means to answer them. Consider the fundamental questions posed in the fourth and fifth centuries B.C. by the classic Greek philosophers Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. Although forms of psychology existed in ancient Indian Yogic traditions, Western psychology traces its origin to these great thinkers』 dialogues about how the mind works, the nature of free will, and the relationship of individual citizens to their community or state. Toward the end of the 19th century, psychology began to emerge as a discipline when researchers applied the laboratory techniques from other sciences---such as physiology and physics--- to the study of these fundamental questions from philosophy.long:早就pose:提出,留下段落結構:引子(主題)->展開(根本問題)->承接(舉例)->展開(以創立收尾)「心理學有著悠久的過去,只有短暫的歷史,「一位早期的實證心理學家赫爾曼·艾賓豪斯(Hermann Ebbinghaus,1908/1973)寫道。學者們早就提出了關於人性的重要問題---比如:人們如何感知現實,意識的本質,發瘋的本源---然而,他們並不擁有解答這些問題的手段。回想一下,由古典希臘哲學家蘇格拉底(Socrates),柏拉圖(Plato)和亞里斯多德(Aristotle)在公元前4-5世紀提出的那些根本問題。儘管心理學以某種形式出現在了古印度的瑜伽傳統中,西方心理學(依然)把它們的源頭追溯到了這些偉大的思想家們的關於下列問題的對話錄,思維是如何運作的,自由意志的本質,以及公民與社區或城邦的關係。直到19世紀末期,當研究者們把生理學和物理學(等)其他科學的實驗技術,應用到對這些源於哲學的根本問題的研究中,心理學才作為一門學科出現。A critical figure in the evolution of modern psychology was Wilhelm Wundt, who, in 1897 in Leipzig, Germany, founded the first formal laboratory devoted to experimental psychology. Although Wundt had been trained as a physiologist, over his research career his interest shifted from questions of body to questions of mind: He wished to understand basic processes of sensation and perception as well as the speed of simple mental processes. By the time he established his psychology laboratory, Wundt had already accomplished a range of research and published the first of several editions of Principles of Physiological Psychology (Kendler, 1987). Once Wundt』s laboratory was established at Leipzig, he began to train the first graduate students specifically devoted to the emerging field of psychology. Those students often became founders of their own psychology laboratories around the world.sensation:感覺perception:知覺basic processes:初級過程specially devoted to:立志於段落結構:主題(威廉馮特)->展開(前期成績)->展開(後期成績)->總結(影響)現代心理學演變過程的一個關鍵人物,便是威廉·馮特(Wilhelm Wundt),他於1897年在德國的萊比錫創建了致力於實證心理學的第一所正式的實驗室。儘管馮特受過生理學家的良好訓練,隨著他的科研生涯,他的興趣從身體的問題轉向了思維的問題:他希望理解感覺和知覺的初級過程以及簡單思維過程的速度。在他創建心理學實驗室之前,馮特已經完成了一系列的研究,並公開出版了第一部《生理心理學原理》(先後有幾個版本)(Kendler,1987)。馮特的實驗室剛剛在萊比錫建成,他便開始了培訓立志於新興的心理學領域的第一批研究生。那批學生大多成為了他們自己的心理學實驗室的創建人,他們的實驗室也遍佈於世界各地。As psychology became established as a separate discipline, psychology laboratories began to appear in universities throughout North America, the first at Johns Hopkins University in 1883. These early laboratories often bore Wundt』s impact. For example, after studying with Wundt, Edward Titchener became one the first psychologists in the United States, founding a laboratory at Cornell University in 1892. However, at around the same time, a young Harvard philosophy professor who had studied medicine and had strong interests in literature and religion developed a uniquely American perspective. William James, brother of the great novelist Henry James, wrote a two-volume work, The principles of Psychology (1890/1950), which many experts consider to be the most important psychology text ever written. Shortly after, in 1892, G. Stanley Hall founded the American Psychological Association. By 1900 there were more than 40 psychology laboratories in North America (Hilgard, 1986).impact:印記,烙印develope:發展,開創段落結構:主題(迅猛發展)->承接(鐵欽納與威廉詹姆斯)->承接(心理學聯合會)->概括(數量)當心理學作為一門獨立的學科被建立起來,心理學實驗室就開始出現在北美洲的各所大學,於1883年,第一所出現在了約翰·霍普金斯大學。這些早期的實驗室大多帶有馮特的烙印。比如,愛德華·B·鐵欽納(Edward B. Titchener,1867/1927)在追隨馮特飽讀(心理學)之後,成為美國第一位心理學家,並於1892年在康奈爾大學創建了一所實驗室。然而,幾乎與此同時,一位年輕的攻讀了醫藥,並對文學和宗教有著強烈興趣的哈佛哲學教授,開創了別具一格的美國視角。這便是威廉·詹姆斯,即著名小說家亨利·詹姆斯的兄弟,他撰寫了一部兩卷的著作,《心理學原理》(1890/1950),該著作被許多專家認為是有史以來最為重要的心理學教材。隨後不久,於1892年,G·斯坦利·霍爾創立了美國心理學聯合會。到1900年為止,在北美洲湧現出40多所心理學實驗室(Hilgard,1986)。Almost as soon as psychology emerged, a debate arose about the proper subject matter and methods for the new discipline. This debate isolated some of the issues that still loom large in psychology. We will describe, specifically, the tension between structuralism and functionalism.isolated:掩蓋specifically:著重的tension:緊張狀態段落結構:主題(爭論開始)->承接(影響)->鋪墊(早期爭論)幾乎是現代心理學剛一創立,關於新學科的適宜主題及其方法的爭論就出現了。這場爭論掩蓋了一些目前依然籠罩在心理學上的難題。我們將著重敘述結構主義和功用主義之間的緊張狀態。第一章(心理學與生活) 第五部分結構主義:思維的內容Psychology』s potential to make a unique contribution to knowledge became apparent when psychology became a laboratory science organized around experiments. In Wundt』s laboratory, experimental participants made simple responses (saying yes or no, pressing a button) to stimuli they perceived under conditions varied by laboratory instruments. Because the data were collected through systematic, objective procedures, independent observers could replicate the results of these experiments. Emphasis on the scientific method (see Chapter 2), concern for precise measurement, and statistical analysis of data characterized Wundt』s psychological tradition.knowledge:認知stimuli:心理學刺激,外界刺激條件,觸發條件。characterized:以。。。為特徵,構成。。。特徵tradition:傳統,慣例段落結構:主題(對認知的意義)->承接(舉例)->概括收尾(帶來的影響)當心理學成為一門圍繞實證組織起來的實驗室科學,心理學對認知做出獨一無二貢獻的潛力變得明顯起來。在馮特的實驗室,實驗參與者在各種各樣的由實驗器具構造出的場景中,(只需)對感受到的刺激,做出簡單的回應(說出是或者不是,按下按鈕)。因為觀測數據是通過系統化的客觀的流程收集起來的,獨立的觀測者能夠重複這些實驗的結果。強調科學化方法(詳見第二章),關注精確的衡量以及對數據的統計分析構成了馮特式心理學慣例的主要特徵。When Titchener brought Wundt』s psychology to the United States, he advocated that such scientific methods be used to study consciousness. His method for examining the elements of conscious mental life was introspection, the systematic examination by individuals of their own thoughts and feelings about specific sensory experiences. Titchener emphasized the 「what」 of mental contents rather than the 「why」 or 「how」 of thinking. His approach came to be known as structuralism, the study of the structure of mind and behavior.mental life:精神生活,認知體驗examination:審視thinking:認知段落結構:主題(鐵欽納先驅)->承接(方式)->承接(意義)->概括(影響)當鐵欽納(Edward B. Titchener,1867/1927)把馮特式心理學帶到美國,他提倡採用這樣的科學化方法來研究意識。對於檢驗有意識的認知體驗中的組成元素來說,他的方法是自我審視,即對那些特定的可感知體驗,系統化的審視自身的想法和感受。鐵欽納強調了「什麼「(是)認知的內容,而非「為什麼能夠」或者「如何完成」認知。他的方式就是後來眾所周知的結構主義,即對思維的結構以及行為的研究。Structuralism was based on the presumption that all human mental experience could be understood as the combination of basic components. The goal of this approach was to reveal the underlying structure of the human mind by analyzing the component elements of sensation and other experiences that form an individual』s mental life. Many psychologists attacked structuralism on three fronts: (1) It was reductionistic because it reduced all complex human experience to simple sensations; (2) it was elemental because it sought to combine parts, or elements, into a whole rather than study complex, or whole, behaviors directly; and (3) it was mentalistic because it studied only verbal reports of human conscious awareness, ignoring the study of individuals who could not describe their introspections, including animals, children, and the mentally disturbed.front:戰線,前沿陣地reductionistic:分解簡化式的verbal report:口述報告mentalistic:自我感知的段落結構:主題(結構主義的假設)->展開(目標與方式)->承接(影響,三方面的攻擊)結構主義學說建立在如下的假定之上,人類所有的認知體驗能夠被理解成初級元素的組合。這種方式的目標是,通過分析構成了一個人的認知體驗的感覺以及其他體驗的組成元素,來揭示人類認知的潛在結構。眾多心理學家們對結構主義在以下三條戰線上進行攻擊:(1)它是分解簡化式的,因為它把人類所有的複雜體驗分解簡化成了簡單的感覺。(2)它是在元素化的,因為它力圖把部分或者組成元素拼湊成整體,而不是直接研究複雜的行為,或者把行為做一個整體去研究。並且(3)它是基於自我感知的,因為它只研究人類有意識下的認知的口述報告,而忽視了對那些無法描述他們的自我感知的個體的研究,包括動物,兒童和心理障礙患者等。One important alternative to structuralism, pioneered by the German psychologist Max Wertheimer, focused on the way in which the mind understands many experiences as gestalts---organized wholes---rather than as the sums of simple parts: Your experience of a painting, for example, is more than the sum of the individual daubs of paint. As we will see in Chapter 4, Gestalt psychology continues to have an impact on the study of perception.alternative:可供選擇的段落結構:主題(格式塔學說)->展開(方式)->承接(影響)另外一個可供選擇的重要學說,由德國心理學家馬克斯維特莫(Max Wertheimer 1880/1943)倡導的,關注大腦以格式塔(Gestalts)---組織化的整體---的方式來理解眾多體驗,而不是簡單部件的總和:例如,你對一幅畫的視覺感受,不同於把每一筆塗抹都加起來的感受。我們將在第四章了解到,格式塔心理學在知覺研究中,持續的發揮著作用。A second major opposition to structuralism came under the banner of functionalism.under the banner of:來自。。。陣營,擁護第二個與結構主義對立的重要學說,來自於功用主義的陣營。Functionalism: Minds with a Purpose功用主義:帶有目的的認知William James agreed with Titchener that consciousness was central to the study of psychology, but for James, the study of consciousness was not reduced to elements, contents, and structures. Instead, consciousness was an ongoing stream, a property of mind in continual interaction with the environment. Human consciousness facilitated one』s adjustment to the environment: thus the acts and functions of mental processes were of significance, not the contents of the mind.property:特性段落結構:引出主題(詹姆斯與鐵欽納的異同)->展開(意義)->概括(結論)對於意識是心理學研究的中心,威廉姆詹姆斯(William James,1842/1910)與鐵欽納(Edward B. Titchener,1867/1927)觀點一致,然而在詹姆斯看來,對意識的研究,不應該分解化簡成元素,內容以及結構。相反,意識像源源不斷的流水一樣,是大腦在與環境的連續交互過程中的一種特性。人類的意識有利於個體對環境的適應:由此行為和思維過程的功用是重要的,並非思維的內容。Functionalism gave primary importance to learned habits that enable organisms to adapt to their environment and to function effectively. For functionalists, the key question to be answered by research was 「What is the function or purpose of any behavioral act?」 The founder of the school of functionalism was the American philosopher John Dewey. His concern for the practical use of mental processes led to important advances in education. Dewey』s theorizing provided the impetus for progressive education in his own laboratory school and more generally in the United States: 「Rote learning was abandoned in favor of learning by doing, in expectation that intellectual curiosity would be encouraged and understanding would be enhanced」 (Kendler, 1987, p.124).function:運作concern:重視in favor of:支持一方,選擇一邊段落結構:主題(方式)->展開(關鍵問題)->承接(杜威的理念)->承接(影響)功用主義把那些能夠讓有機體適應環境和有效運作的習得行為,擺在了首要位置。對於功用主義研究者來說,研究需要解答的關鍵問題是「任何一種非思維活動的行為的功用或者目的是什麼?」功用主義學說的創立者是美國哲學家約翰杜威(John Dewey,1859/1952)。他對思維過程的實際用途的重視,帶來了教育領域的一系列重要進步。杜威(對其理念)的理論化為漸進式教育在他自己的實驗學校,甚至於在美國的全面推行提供了原動力:死記硬背式學習被丟棄,而選擇了在實踐中學習,期待著發自內心的好奇受到鼓勵,同時理解也能夠得到強化」(Kendler, 1987, p.124)。Although James believed in careful observation, he put little value on the rigorous laboratory methods of Wundt. In James』s psychology, there was a place for emotions, self, will, values, and even religious and mystical experience. His 「warm-blooded」 psychology recognized uniqueness in each individual that could not be reduced to formulas or numbers from test results. For James, explanation rather than experimental control was the goal of psychology (Arkin, 1990).believe in:相信,明白recognize:認為experimental control:實驗支配,心理學實驗控制組(control group)段落結構:主題(詹姆斯的理念)->承接(理由)->收尾(對功用主義學說的影響)雖然詹姆斯也明白仔細觀測(的價值),但是他並沒有對馮特式的嚴謹實驗方法給予足夠的重視。在詹姆斯的心理學(理念中),情感,自我,意願,價值,甚至宗教和神秘經歷都應該有一席之地。他「熱血」式的心理學認為,每個個體都是獨一無二的,並不應該化簡成測試結果中的公式或者數字。在詹姆斯看來,解釋(行為)而非實驗支配才是心理學的目標。The Legacy of These Approaches這些方法的歷史遺產Despite their differences, the insights of the practitioners of both structuralism and functionalism created an intellectual context in which contemporary psychology could flourish. Psychologists currently examine both the structure and the function of behavior. Consider the process of speech production. Suppose you want to invite a friend to watch the Superbowl. To do so, the words you speak must serve the right function---Superbowl, with me, today---but also have the right structure: It wouldn』t do to say, 「Would watch Superbowl me the with today you to like?」 To understand how speech production works, researchers study the way that speakers fit meanings (functions) to the grammatical structures of their languages (Bock, 1990). (We will describe some of the processes of language production in Chapter 8.) Throughout Psychology and Life, we emphasize both structure and function as we review both classic and contemporary research. Psychologists continue to employ a great variety of methodologies to study the general forces that apply to all humans as well as unique aspects of each individual.intellectural context:充滿創新的氛圍speech production:語句產生server:符合,滿足the right function:正確的語義功能(即邀請)meanings:符合語義的單詞research:研究案例段落結構:主題(學說的影響)->承接(如今)->承接(舉例)->承接(本書案例)->概括(未來)雖然這些學說之間存在著的種種差異,結構主義和功用主義的實踐者們的深刻見解,為當代心理學得以興盛奠定了充滿創新的氛圍。如今的心理學家們,同時查看行為的結構和功用二者。設想一下構造語句的過程,假定你想邀請一位朋友去超級碗觀看比賽。為了表達出這個意願,不但你說出的單詞必須符合正確的語義功能---「超級碗,和我,今天」---而且必須具有正確的詞句結構:像這樣的說法是沒用的,「觀看(比賽)去超級碗我和今天你願不願意?「為了理解構造語句是如何工作的,研究者們研究說話者把符合語義功用的單詞填充到語言的語法結構中的方式(Bock,1990)。(我們將會在第八章敘述語言中的一些語句構造過程。)貫穿《心理學與生活》全書,在我們回顧經典和當代心理學的研究案例的時候,我們會同時強調這兩者。心理學家們將繼續採用各式各樣的方法,來研究對所有人類以及每個個體的獨特之處都適用的普遍驅動力。第一章(心理學與生活) 第六部分CURRENT PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES當代心理學的多種視角Suppose your friend accepts the invitation to watch the Superbowl. What perspective does each of you bring to your viewing of the game? Suppose one of you played football in high school whereas the other did not. Or suppose one of you has rooted from birth for one of the competing teams, whereas the other has no prior commitments. You can see how these different perspectives would affect the way in which you evaluate the game as it unfolds.root from birth:生來就支持commitment:承諾,熱衷unfold:拉開序幕段落結構:主題(視角決定思路)->承接(舉例)->概括(推論)假定你的朋友接受了邀請,去超級碗觀看比賽。你們每一個會用什麼樣的視角看待比賽?假如其中一人在高中時代參加過橄欖球比賽,而另外一人沒有。或者假如其中一人生來就是其中一支比賽隊伍的粉絲,而另外一個從未有過這樣的熱衷。隨著比賽拉開序幕,你就能理解不同的視角會影響你們對比賽的評價方式。In a similar fashion, psychologists』 perspectives determine the way in which they examine behavior and mental processes. The perspectives influence what psychologists look for, where they look, and what research methods they use. In this section, we define seven perspectives---psychodynamic, behaviorist, humanistic, cognitive, biological, evolutionary, and sociocultural. As you read the section, note how each perspective defines the causes and consequences of behavior.section:節note:留意段落結構:主題(心理學家們的視角)->展開(視角的影響)->承接(當代主流視角)->收尾與之類似,心理學家們的視角決定了他們查看行為和思維過程的方式。這些視角又會對心理學家們查看什麼,去哪裡查看,以及採用什麼樣的研究方法產生影響。在這一節,我們定義了七個視角---心理動力學,行為主義者,人文主義,認知,生物學,進化和社會文化。在你閱讀這節的時候,請留意每一種視角是如何定義了行為的緣由及其後果。A word of caution: Although each perspective represents a different approach to the central issues of psychology, you should come to appreciate why most psychologists borrow and blend concepts from more than one of these perspectives. Each perspective enhances the understanding of the entirety of human experience. In the chapters that follow, we will elaborate in some detail on the contributions of each approach because, taken together, they represent what contemporary psychology is all about.appreciate:感慨come to:不由的enhance:強化,增進段落結構:主題(每個獨特之處)->展開(實際應用的需要)->承接(完整理解)->概括(整體意義)一句提醒:雖然每一種視角代表了心理學家們對心理學核心問題的不同(處理)方式,但你會不由的感慨到為什麼大多數心理學家借用和糅合了來自於多個視角的概念。每一個視角都增進了對人類體驗的完整理解。在接下來的幾章,我們將略為詳細的逐一敘述每一種方式所做出的貢獻,因為只有合起來,他們才能代表當代心理學的一切。The Psychodynamic Perspective心理動力學視角According to the psychodynamic perspective, behavior is driven, or motivated, by powerful inner forces. In this view, human actions stem from inherited instincts, biological drives, and attempts to resolve conflicts between personal needs and society』s demands. Deprivation states, physiological arousal, and conflicts provide the power for behavior just as coal fuels a steam locomotive. According to this model, the organism stops reacting when its needs are satisfied and its drives reduced. The main purpose of action is to reduce tension.inherited instincts <-> deprivation states:本能<-> 欲求得不到滿足的狀態biological drives ?physiological arousal:生物驅動力<->生理上的興奮conflicts between personal needs and society』s demands<->conflict:個人需求和社會需要之間的衝突:衝突段落結構:主題(心理動力學觀點)->展開(三種來源)->承接(原理)->概括(行為的目的)按照心理動力學視角,行為由強烈的內在力量驅使或者激發。在這種觀點中,人們行事來源於與生俱來的本能,生物驅動力,並且試圖去平息個人需求和社會需要之間的衝突。欲求得不到滿足的狀態,生理上的興奮和衝突為行為注入了原動力,就好像煤炭給蒸汽機帶來了動力一樣。根據這一模型,當需求得到了滿足,驅動力則隨之消退,有機體就會停止反應,行事的主要目的是為了消除緊張狀態。Psychodynamic principles of motivation were most fully developed by the Viennese physician Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Freud』s ideas grew out of his work with mentally disturbed patients, but he believed that the principles he observed applied to both normal and abnormal behavior. Freud』s psychodynamic theory views a person as pulled and pushed by a complex network of inner and outer forces. Freud』s model was the first to recognize that human nature is not always rational, that actions may be driven by motives that are not in conscious awareness.ideas:靈感motives:動機conscious awareness:有意識狀態,相對於潛意識段落結構:主題(領軍人物)->展開(來源和觀點)->概括(意義)心理動力學視角中,動機的法則大多數完全是由維也納醫師西格蒙德佛洛伊德(Sigmund Freud,1856/1939)在19世紀末和20世紀初建立起來的。佛洛伊德的靈感來源於他長期與心理失調患者在一起的職業,但他堅信他觀察到的法則對正常行為和異常行為同樣適用。佛洛伊德的心理動力學理論認為每個人受到了由內在和外在力量組成的複雜網路的驅使和推動。佛洛伊德的模型第一個認識到了人的本性並非總是理性,並且行事或許受到了潛意識下的動機的驅使。Many psychologists since Freud have taken the psychodynamic model in new directions. Freud himself emphasized early childhood as the stage in which personality is formed. Neo-Freudian theorists have broadened psychodynamic theory to include social influences and interactions that occur over the individual』s entire lifetime. Psychodynamic ideas have had a great influence on many areas of psychology. You will encounter different aspects of Freud』s contributions as you read about child development, dreaming, forgetting, unconscious motivation, personality, and psychoanalytic therapy.since Freud:後繼direction:方向,領域段落結構:主題(學派的發展)->展開(新舊差異)->展開(後世影響)->概括鋪墊佛洛伊德之後的許多心理學家把心理動力學模型應用到了諸多新的領域。佛洛伊德自己強調了幼年早期是個性形成的階段。而新佛洛伊德學派的理論家們,為了納入來自社會的影響力和貫穿個體一生的社交互動,拓寬了心理動力學理論。心理動力學的理念對心理學的多個領域產生了巨大的影響。隨著你讀到兒童成長,做夢,遺忘,潛意識動機,個性,以及精神分析療法等主題,你將與佛洛伊德在不同方面的諸多建樹不期而遇。The Behaviorist Perspective行為主義者視角Those who take the behaviorist perspective seek to understand how particular environmental stimuli control particular kinds of behavior. First, behaviorists analyze the antecedent environmental conditions---those that precede the behavior and set the stage for an organism to make a response or withhold a response. Next, they look at the behavioral response, which is the main object of study---the action to be understood, predicted, and controlled. Finally, they examine the observable consequences that follow from the response. A behaviorist, for example, might be interested in the way in which speeding tickets of varying penalties (the consequence of speeding) change the likelihood that motorists will drive with caution or abandon (behavioral responses).antecedent environmental conditions:事前場景條件,事前場景因素set the stage:設定場景main object of study:研究主體with adandon:恣意,放縱段落結構:主題(方式)->展開(具體步驟)->承接(舉例)那些遵從行為主義者視角的心理學家們,致力於理解特定環境下的刺激如何支配了特定類型的行為。首先,行為主義者們分析事前場景條件---就是那些出現在特定行為之前的條件,並且為了有機體做出響應或者收迴響應而設定場景。接著,他們查看在行為上的響應,也就是他們的研究主體,即那些需要理解的,預測的和支配的目標行為。最後,他們檢查伴隨著響應的可觀測的後續行為。比如,一位行為主義者,可能會感興趣不同懲罰力度的超速罰單(超速的後果)對司機會小心駕駛或者恣意駕駛(行為上的反應)兩種可能性施加影響的方式。The behaviorist perspective was pioneered by John Watson (1878-1958), who argued that psychological research should seek the laws that govern observable behavior across species. B. F. Skinner (1904-1990) extended the influence of behaviorism by expanding its analyses to the consequences of behaviors. Both researchers insisted on precise definitions of the phenomena studied and on rigorous standards of evidence. Both Watson and Skinner believed that the basic processes they investigated with nonhuman animals represented general principles that would hold true for humans as well.行為主義者視角,起初是由約翰華生(John Watson ,1878/1958)倡導的,他認為心理學研究應該探尋支配可觀測行為的跨物種法則。斯金納(B. F. Skinner,1904/1990),通過把分析延伸到後續行為,從而擴大了行為主義的影響。兩位研究者不斷的強調了對研究現象的精確定義和對證據的嚴謹標準。華生和斯金納兩位都堅信,他們在動物身上研究過的初級行為過程代表了同樣適用於人類的普遍法則。段落結構:主題(領軍人物)->承接(另一位關鍵人物)->概括(影響)Behaviorism has yielded a critical practical legacy. Its emphasis on the need for rigorous experimentation and carefully defined variables has influenced most areas of psychology. Although behaviorists have conducted much basic research with nonhuman animals, the principles of behaviorism have been widely applied to human problems. Behaviorist principles have yielded a more humane approach to educating children (through the use of positive reinforcement rather than punishment), new therapies for modifying behavior disorders, and guidelines for creating model utopian communities.modifying:改善,治療段落結構:主題(影響)->展開(實驗和定義)->展開(教育,醫療,烏托邦)行為主義留下了一項關鍵而實用的遺產。他們對嚴謹實驗和仔細定義變數的必要性的強調,對心理學的大多數領域產生了影響。雖然行為主義者們在動物身上實施了大量初級研究,但是其法則被廣泛應用到了人類的問題上。此外,行為主義者的法則,為兒童教育留下了一種更加人性的方式(通過使用正面強化而非懲罰),為治療行為失調患者留下了新的治療手段,以及為創建烏托邦社區的現實模型留下了指導原則。The humanistic Perspective人文主義視角Humanistic psychology emerged in the 1950s as an alternative to the psychodynamic and the behaviorist models. According to the humanistic perspective, people are neither driven by the powerful, instinctive forces postulated by the Freudians nor manipulated by their environments, as proposed by the behaviorist. Instead, people are active creatures who are innately good and capable of choice. Humanistic psychologists study behavior, but not by reducing to components, elements, and variables in laboratory experiments. Instead, they look for patterns in people』s life histories.life history:生活史,生活歷程段落結構:主題(為何出現)->展開(理念)->承接(方式)人文主義心理學於1950年左右,作為心理動力學和行為主義者模型之外的另一種學說而出現。根據人文主義視角,人們即不是被佛洛伊德派聲稱的強烈的本能力量所驅使,也不是由行為主義者們提出的被環境所支配。相反,人們是具有主動性的生靈,具有與生俱來的善良,並能夠做出選擇。人文主義心理學家們同樣研究人類行為,但沒有把行為化簡成組成部件,元素和實驗室中實驗下的變數。相反,他們關注人們的生活歷程中的模式。According to the humanistic perspective, the main task for human is to strive for positive development. For example, Carl Rogers (1902-1987) emphasized that individuals have a natural tendency toward psychological growth and health---a process that is aided by the positive regard of those who surrounded them. Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) coined the term self-actualization to refer to each individual』s drive toward the fullest development of his or her potential. In addition, Rogers, Maslow, and their colleagues defined a perspective that strives to deal with the whole person, practicing a holistic approach to human psychology. They believed that true understanding requires integrating knowledge of individual』s mind, body, and behavior with an awareness of social and cultural forces.1. positive regard:正面關注,正面影響awareness:斟酌,顧及,考慮integrating :綜合段落結構:主題(理念)->展開(卡爾羅哲思)->展開(馬斯洛)->展開(創立此學說)->概括按照人文主義視角,一個人一生的主要任務是致力於向好的方面成長。比如,卡爾羅哲思(Carl Rogers ,1902/1987)強調了個體們天生都具有心理成長和心理健康的傾向---也就是在周圍人們的正面影響的輔助下的成長過程。亞伯拉罕馬斯洛(Abraham Maslow 1908/1970)創造了「自我實現」這個術語,來指明每個個體向著充分展現潛能的成長動力。而且,羅哲思,馬斯洛和他們的同行們共同定義了這個致力於從整個人的角度去理解行為 的視角,並在人文主義心理學中踐行他們的整體化方式。他們堅信真正理解人的行為需要綜合關於大腦,身體和行為多方面的知識,並考慮來自社會和文化的力量。The humanistic approach expends the realm of psychology to include valuable lessons from the study of literature, history, and arts. In this manner, psychology becomes a more complete discipline. Humanists suggest that their view is the yeast that helps psychology rise above its focus on negative forces and on the animal-like aspect of humanity. As we shall see in Chapter 15, the humanistic perspective had major impact on the development of new approaches to psychotherapy.rise above:走出,超越段落結構:主題(後世影響)->承接(催化劑)->概括人文主義方式為了納入文學,歷史和藝術研究的寶貴經驗,擴展了心理學的範疇。由此,心理學成為了一門更加完整的學科。人文主義學者戲稱,他們的觀點是幫助心理學研究走出僅僅關注負面驅動力和人性中動物性的一面的酵母。你將在第十五章了解到人文主義視角在心理治療的新方法研發中,發揮了重大作用。第一章心理學與生活第六部分當代心理學視角設想你的朋友接到了觀看美國橄欖球聯盟賽的邀請,你們用什麼觀點來看待遊戲?設想你們當中的一人在高中時期踢足球但是其他人沒有,或者設想你們當中的一人從出生就生根在一個競賽團隊中,但是其他人沒有。當結果顯露出來你將能看到這些不同的觀點是怎樣影響你評價遊戲的方式。一種相似的方式,心理學家的觀點決定他們測試行為和心理歷程的繁花似錦。心理學家的觀點影響他們尋找的東西、觀察的出發點和調查研究的方法。在這部分,我們闡明了七個視角——心理動力學,行為主義,人本主義,認知,生物學,進化論和社會文化。你在讀這部分的時候,記下每個視角是如何定義行為的起因和結果的。注意:儘管每個視角代表了不同心理學中心問題的方法,你應該欣賞為什麼心理學家借用並且融合了多種視角的概念,每個視角都加強了對整個人類經驗的理解。在下面的章節中,我們會詳細闡述每種方法的貢獻,因為綜合考慮,它們代表了當代心理學的全部內容。心理動力學視角根據心理動力學視角,行為是受強有力的內在力量驅使激發的。在這種觀點中人類行為源於遺傳本能、生物驅動和人們嘗試解決個人需求與社會需求的衝突。缺乏狀態,生理衝動和衝突都為行動提供了力量,像煤為蒸汽動力提供燃料一樣。依據這種模型,當需求滿足驅動減少時這種機體組織就會停止反應。行為的主要目的就是減緩緊張關係。心理動力學的動機原理主要是由19世紀末到二十世紀初的維也納的內科醫生西格蒙德弗洛伊德發展起來的。弗洛伊德的觀點從他治療精神病人的工作中得出來,但是他相信他觀察得到的原理能應用於各種行為,包括正常的和非正常的。弗洛伊德的心理動力學理論認為人被內在和外在的錯綜複雜的力量拉扯著。弗洛伊德的模型是第一個識別人類的本性不總是理性的,人類的行為也可能被非意識領域的動機驅動。自弗洛伊德一些心理學家把心理動力學的模型運用在各種方向。弗洛伊德強調人的性格是在早期童年階段形成的,新弗洛伊德主義理論已經擴展了心理動力學理論,它包含了發生在人們一生中的社會影響和交互作用。心理動力學的觀點對心理學的諸多領域產生了很大的影響,當你閱讀兒童發展、夢、遺忘、無意識行為、人格和精神分析理論的書時你會發現弗洛伊德多方面的貢獻。行為主義視角採取行為主義視角的專家試圖理解環境刺激如何控制特殊行為。首先,行為主義分析先前的環境條件——那些先於行為,為機體設定做出回應和不予回應的階段。下一步,他們觀察主要的研究對象即行為反應,能夠被理解、預見和控制的動作。最後,他們檢測反應後的可觀察到的後果。一個行為主義者可能對各種各樣的超速罰款改變駕駛者小心或是放縱的開車的方式感興趣。行為主義視角的領軍人物是John Watson(1878-1958),他支持心理學研究應該通過物種學家B. F. Skinner (1904-1990)尋找支配可觀察測行為的定律,通過擴大對行為後果的分析延展行為產生的後果。研究者都堅持對現象研究的精確定義和證據的縝密標準。Watson 和 Skinner 都相信對動物的調查基本進程大體上也代表了對人類也成立的原則。行為主義帶來了批評性的實用的遺產,它強調已經影響了心理學多數區域的研究對嚴謹的實驗和仔細界定變數的需求。儘管行為學家對動物做了許多基礎研究,行為主義的原理已經廣泛應用到人類問題上,行為主義原理已經為教育兒童帶來了許多人道的方法(通過使用正強化而非懲罰),修正行為失范的新理論和為創造烏托邦社會模型的指南。人本主義視角人本主義心理學出現在十九世紀五十年代,作為心理動力學和行為主義模型的一種選擇。人本主義的觀點,人們要麼受強有力的本能的力量驅使,即弗洛伊德設定的學說;要麼受環境控制,即行為主義學說。與之替代的是,人是具有主觀能動性的生物,先天有能力並擅於作出選擇。人本主義心理學家研究行為,不是通過將行為分解成各種成分、元素和實驗研究法中的變數法,相反,他們是觀察人們生活歷史的模式。依據人本主義的視角,人主要的任務即爭取積極向上的發展,比如說,卡爾羅傑斯(1902-1987)曾強調個人有心理成長和心理健康的自然趨勢,這個進程要求個人關注生活周圍的積極面。Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) 創造了詞「自我實現」來稱呼每個人都會追求個人潛能的充分發展的事實。另外,羅傑斯、 Maslow和他們的同事確定了一種視角,即追求涉及整個人,嘗試全面方法的人類心理學。他們相信正確的的理解需要把個人的思想、肢體和行為融進社會意識和文化力量。人本主義的方法擴大了心理學的範圍,進而包括來自於文學、歷史和藝術學習的有價值的課程。以這種方式,心理學成為了更加綜合性的學科,聚焦於消極力量和人與動物相似的方面,人本主義暗示他們的觀點會幫助心理學提升。正如我們將要在15章中看到的,人本主義觀點對心理學理論的發展產生了主要的影響。第一章(心理學與生活) 第七部分The Cognitive Perspective認知視角The cognitive revolution in psychology emerged as another challenge to the limits of behaviorism. The centerpiece of the cognitive perspective is human thought and all the processes of knowing---attending, thinking, remembering and understanding. From the cognitive perspective, people act because they think, and people think because they are human beings, exquisitely equipped to do so.段落結構:引子(出現方式)->主題(認知視角)->展開(理念)心理學中的認知革命是作為對行為主義的局限性的另一挑戰(第一個是人文主義視角)而出現的。認知視角的核心是人類思維和所有的認知過程---關注,思考,記憶和理解。在認知視角中,人們行事是因為他們思考,並且人們思考是因為他們是人類,被巧妙的賦予了這種能力。According to the cognitive model, behavior is only partly determined by preceding environmental events and past behavioral consequences, as behaviorists believe. Some of the most significant behavior emerges from totally novel ways of thinking, not from predictable ways used in the past. The ability to imagine options and alternatives that are totally different from what is or was enables people to work toward futures that transcend current circumstances. An individual responds to reality not as it is in the objective world of matter, but as it is in the subjective reality of the individual』s inner world of thoughts and imagination. Cognitive psychologists view thoughts as both results and causes of overt actions. Feeling regret when you』ve hurt someone is an example of thought as a result. But apologizing for your actions after feeling regret is an example of thought as a cause of behavior.objective world of matter:客觀的物質世界subjective reality:主觀現實overt: 外在的,公開的段落結構:引子(現象)->主題(理念)->展開(行為法則)->承接(舉例)按照認知模型,行為只是部分的由場景中的前期事件和過去的行為後果所決定,正如行為主義者所相信的。一部分具有重要意義的行為,完全發自新奇的思維方式,並非來源於過去用過的某些可預測的方式。想像出與當前或者過去情形完全不同的選項和其他選擇的能力,使人們能夠朝著超越當前境況的未來去努力。個體在現實世界中做出的反應,不是出自客觀的物質世界,而是源於充滿思維和想像的個體內在世界中的主觀現實。認知心理學家們認為思維既是行為的結果,又是外在行為的緣由。比如,當你傷害了某個人的時候你會感到內疚,就是思考是行為的結果的一個例子。同時,在你感到內疚之後,為你的行為道歉,就是思考是行為的某種緣由的一個例子。Cognitive psychologists study higher mental processes such as perception, memory, language use, problem solving, and decision making at a variety of levels. They may examine patterns of blood flow in the brain during different types of cognitive tasks, a student』s recollection of an early childhood event, or changes in memory abilities across the life span. Because of its focus on mental processes, many researchers see the cognitive perspective as the dominant one in psychology today.recollection:回想段落結構:主題(認知科學家)->承接(舉例)->概括(影響)認知心理學家們研究高等思維過程,比如,多種層次上的知覺,記憶,語言使用,解決問題和做出決定等。他們也許會檢查不同類型的認知任務下大腦中血液流動的模式,比如,某個學生回想發生在幼年的事件,或者人們一生中記憶能力的變化。因為該視角側重於研究思維過程,很多研究者認為在當今心理學中它具有主導地位。The Biological Perspective生物學視角The biological perspective guides psychologists who search for the causes of behavior in the functioning of genes, the brain, the nervous system, and the endocrine system. An organism』s functioning is explained in terms of underlying physical structures and biochemical processes. Experience and behaviors are largely understood as the result of chemical and electrical activities taking place within and between nerve cells.段落結構:主題(方式)->承接(理念)->承接(法則)largely:大體上,在很大程度上生物學視角指引著那些從基因,大腦,神經系統,和內分泌系統的功能中探尋行為緣由的心理學家們。他們用潛在的生理結構和生物化學過程來解釋有機體的某個功能。體驗和行為在很大程度上被認為是發生在神經細胞之間的化學和電子活動的結果。Researchers who take the biological perspective generally assume that psychological and social phenomena can be ultimately understood in terms of biochemical processes: Even the most complex phenomena can be understood by analysis, or reduction, into even smaller, more specific units. They might, for example, try to explain how you are reading the words of this sentence with respect to the exact physical processes in cells in your brain. According to this perspective, behavior is determined by physical structures and hereditary processes. Experience can modify behavior by altering these underlying biological structures and processes. Researchers might ask, 「What changes in your brain occurred while you learned to read?」 the task of psychobiological researchers is to understand behavior at the most precise level of analysis.understand:解釋段落結構:主題(方式)->承接(舉例)->概括收尾遵從生物學視角的研究者們,普遍假定用生物化學過程可以最終解釋心理和社會現象:即便是最複雜的現象,通過分析或者把它們化簡成更細小,更獨特的單元,都可以被理解。比如,他們會試圖用精確的,發生在腦細胞之間的生物化學過程來解釋你正在如何閱讀這句話的單詞。根據這個視角,行為是由生理結構和遺傳過程決定的。通過改動這些潛在的生理結構和過程,經歷能夠改變行為。研究者們也許會問道,「在你學會閱讀的時候,你的大腦發生了什麼變化?」生物心理學研究者們的任務是通過在最為精確的層面上的分析,去理解行為。Many researchers who take the biological perspective contribute to the multidiscipline field of behavioral neuroscience. Neuroscience is the study of brain function; behavioral neuroscience attempts to understand the brain processes underlying behaviors such as sensation, learning, and emotion. The advances in the brain imaging techniques that we describe in Chapter 3 have led to dramatic breakthroughs in the field of cognitive neuroscience. Cognitive neuroscience trains a multidisciplinary research focus on the brain bases of higher cognitive functions such as memory and language. As we shall see, brain-imaging techniques allow the biological perspective to be extended into a broad range of human experience.Behavioral neurscience:生物心理學的另一名稱multidiscipline:多學科,跨學科dramatic:引人注目的,矚目的breakthrough:突破,進展train:致力於(aim or put)extended:拓展,伸入段落結構:引子(影響)->主題(行為神經科學)->承接(認知神經科學)->概括(技術的意義)眾多遵從生物學視角的研究者們為跨學科的行為神經科學做出了貢獻。神經科學是研究大腦功能的科學:行為神經科學嘗試著去理解諸如感覺,學習,和情感等行為背後的大腦思維過程。我們將要在第三章敘述的大腦成像技術的進步引發了認知神經科學領域中引人注目的突破。認知神經科學致力於,側重於記憶和語言等高等認知功能的大腦機制的跨學科研究。我們將看到,大腦成像技術為生物學視角伸入更為廣范的人類體驗提供了可能性。The Evolutionary Perspective進化視角The evolutionary perspective seeks to connect contemporary psychology to a central idea of the life science, Charles Darwin』s theory of evolution by natural selection. The idea of natural selection is quite simple: Those organisms that are suited to their environments tend to produce offspring (and pass on their genes) more successfully than those organisms with poorer adaptations. Over many generations, the species changes in the direction of the privileged adaptation. The evolutionary perspective in psychology suggests that mental abilities evolved over millions of years to serve particular adaptive purposes, just as physical abilities did.in the direction:順著server:達到,滿足段落結構:引子(自然選擇)->主題(進化論視角)->概括(理念)進化視角致力於把當代心理學與生命科學中的一個中心理念,達爾文的自然選擇進化論,聯繫起來。自然選擇理論相當簡明:那些適應了他們的生存環境的有機體,比那些對環境不適應的有機體,更易於成功的繁衍後代(並傳遞他們的基因),隨著一代一代的遺傳,物種順著具有獨特適應性的趨勢進化。心理學中的進化視角認為,大腦的功能與生理機能一樣,為了達到多種特定的適應性目標,歷經數百萬年的進化。To practice evolutionary psychology, researchers focus on the environmental conditions in which the human brain evolved. Human spent 99 percent of their evolutionary history as hunter-gatherers living in small groups during the Pleistocene era (the roughly 2-million-year period ending 10,000 years ago). Evolutionary psychology uses the rich theoretical framework of evolutionary biology to identify the central adaptive problems that faced this species: avoiding predators and parasites, gathering and exchanging food, finding and retaining mates, and raising healthy children. After identifying the adaptive problems that these early humans faced, evolutionary psychologists generate inferences about the sorts of mental mechanisms, or psychological adaptations, that might have evolved to solve those problems.inference:推論,推斷段落結構:主題(方式)->展開(狀況)->展開(工具)->展開(理念)為了開展進化論心理學研究,研究者們關注人類大腦進化的環境條件。在更新世(一個大致兩百萬年的階段並於一萬年前結束),人類以狩獵採集的小群體,度過了99%的進化歷史。進化論心理學借用了進化生物學的豐富的理論框架,來確定這個物種(人類)面臨的關鍵性適應問題:避開食肉動物和寄生蟲,採集和交換食物,找到並維持配偶,和撫養健康的孩子。在確定了那些早期人類面對的適應問題之後,進化論心理學家們對人類可能進化出的用來解決那些問題的某些思維機能,或者說是心理學意義上的適應性,做出推斷。Evolutionary psychology differs from other perspectives most fundamentally in its focus on the extremely long process of evolution as a central explanatory principle. Evolutionary psychologists, for example, attempt to understand the different sex roles assumed by men and women as products of evolutionary, rather than as products of contemporary societal pressures. Because evolutionary psychologists cannot carry out experiments that vary the course of evolution, they must be particularly inventive to provide evidence in favor of their theories.段落結構:主題(獨特之處)->展開(舉例)->概括(弱點)進化心理學與其他視角的根本不同之處,在於它側重於把漫長的的進化過程作為一項核心的解釋原則。比如,進化心理學家們試圖把不同性別的職能(男性和女性)理解成進化的產物,而不是當代社會壓力的產物。由於進化心理學家們無法實施多種多樣的進化歷程實驗,為了提出支持他們的理論的證據,他們必須考慮出別出心裁的思路。The Sociocultural Perspective社會文化視角Psychologists who take a sociocultural perspective study cross-cultural differences in the causes and consequences of behavior. The sociocultural perspective is an important response to the criticism that psychological research has too often been based on a Western conception of human nature and had as its subject population only white middle-class Americans (Gergenet al., 1996). A proper consideration of cultural forces may involve comparisons of groups within the same national boundaries. For example, researchers may compare the prevalence of eating disorders for white American versus African American teenagers within the United States (see Chapter 11). Cultural forces may also be assessed across nationalities, as in comparisons of moral judgments in the United States and India (see Chapter 10). Cross-cultural psychologists want to determine whether the theories researchers have developed apply to all humans, or only to narrower, specific populations.prevalence:廣泛性 ,普遍性moral judgement:道德標準段落結構:主題(獨特之處及意義)->展開(方式一)->展開(方式二)->承接(意義)那些遵從社會文化視角的心理學家們研究行為的緣由及其後果的跨文化差異。對於心理學研究大多是基於西方的人性概念以及僅僅把白種中產階級美國人作為了研究主體的批評,社會文化視角是一項重要的回應(Gergenet al., 1996)。對文化力量的適宜思考也許需要對同一國家領土下的多個群體做出比較。比如:研究者們也許會比較美國的白人和非洲裔青年兩個群體之間飲食失調的普遍性(詳見第十一章)。就像比較美國和印度兩個國家的道德標準,同樣可以評估文化力量的跨國家差異(詳見第十章)。跨文化心理學家們希望確定研究者們發展起來的理論能否應用於全體人類,或者僅僅是少量的特定群體。A cross-cultural perspective can be brought to bear on almost every topic of psychological research: Are people』s perceptions of the world affected by culture? Do the languages people speak affect the way they experience the world? How does culture affect the way children develop toward adulthood? How do cultural attitudes shape the experience of old age? How does culture affect our sense of self? Does culture influence an individual』s likelihood to engage in particular behaviors? Does culture affect the way individuals express emotions? Does culture affect the rates at which people suffer from psychological disorders?attitudes:態度,傾向our sense of self:對自己的認識段落結構:主題(廣泛的適用性)->承接(舉例)跨文化視角幾乎可以應用到心理學研究的任何主題上:人們對世界的感知會受到文化的影響嗎?人們使用的語言會影響他們體驗世界的方式嗎?文化如何影響兒童成長為成年人的方式?文化傾向如何塑造老年人的生活體驗?文化如何影響我們對自己的認識?文化會影響某個人沉浸於某些特定行為的可能性嗎?文化會影響個體表達情緒的方式嗎?文化會影響人們受到心理困擾的比例嗎?By asking these types of questions, the sociocultural perspective often yields conclusions that directly challenge those generated from the other perspectives. Researchers have claimed, for example, that many aspects of Freud』s psychodynamic theories cannot apply to cultures that are very different from Freud』s Vienna. This concern as raised as early as 1927 by the anthropologists Bronislaw Malinowski (1927), who soundly critiqued Freud』s father-centered theory by describing the family practices of the Trobriand Islanders of New Guinea, for whom family authority resided with mothers rather than with fathers. The sociocultural perspective, therefore, suggests that some universal claims of the psychodynamic perspective are incorrect. The sociocultural perspective poses a continual, important challenge to generalizations about human experience that ignore the diversity and richness of culture.direct challenge:直接衝突pose:提出,意味著段落結構:主題(獨特視角)->展開(批評心理動力學)->承接(父權的例子)->概括(意義)在這類提出的問題上,社會文化視角通常會得出與從其他視角得出的結論直接衝突的結論。比如,社會文化視角的研究者們聲稱,佛洛伊德的心理動力學理論的諸多方面,不適用於那些與佛洛伊德的家鄉維也納差異極大的文化背景。這個觀點,早在1927年由人類學家布羅尼斯拉夫馬林諾夫斯基提出,就是通過敘述新幾內亞特羅布里恩島的居民們在家庭權威屬於母親一方而不是父親一方下的家庭生活,有力的批評了佛洛伊德的父權為中心的理論的那位。所以,社會文化視角提出心理動力學中一些普世主張是不正確的。社會文化視角,對於那些忽視了文化的多樣性和豐富內涵而做出的概括,意味著持續不斷的挑戰。
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