2011版:原發性醛固酮增多症治療指南
06-28
原發性醛固酮增多症[名詞解釋]原發性醛固酮增多症(Primary hyperaldosteronism, PHA):腎上腺皮質分泌過量的醛固酮激素,引起以高血壓、低血鉀、低血漿腎素活性(plasma rennin activity,PRA)和鹼中毒為主要表現的臨床綜合征,又稱Conn綜合征。血漿醛固酮/腎素活性比值(Aldosterone/rennin ratio,ARR):血漿醛固酮與腎素濃度的比值。若該比值(血漿醛固酮的單位:ng/dl,腎素活性單位:ng/ml/h)≥40,提示醛固酮過多分泌為腎上腺自主性,結合血漿醛固酮濃度大於20ng/dl,則ARR對診斷的敏感性和特異性分別提高到90%,91%[1-3]。是高血壓患者中篩選原醛最可靠的方法[4]。一、流行病學高血壓患者中PHA佔0.5%~16%,平均10%左右,是繼發性高血壓最常見的病因[5-13]。PHA患病率與高血壓嚴重度成正比,高血壓1級(145~159/90~99 mmHg)者PHA約1.99%;高血壓2級(160~179/100~109 mmHg)者約8.02%;高血壓3級(≥180/110 mmHg)約13.2%[12]。頑固性高血壓者PHA的發生率可達到17%~20%[14, 15]。發病年齡高峰為30~50歲,女多於男[7, 16]。二、病因、病理生理和分型(一)病因和分類病因不明,可能與遺傳有關[17, 18]。根據分泌醛固酮的病因或病理改變,將PHA分為以下幾種亞型[5, 19](表7)。表7 PHA臨床亞型亞型相對比率(%)特發性醛固酮增多症(IHA)50~60醛固酮腺瘤(APA)40~50原發性單側腎上腺增生(UNAH)1~2分泌醛固酮的腎上腺皮質癌<1家族性醛固酮增多症(FH)<1Ⅰ型(糖皮質激素可抑制性,GRA)Ⅱ型(糖皮質激素不可抑制性)異位醛固酮腫瘤<11.特發性醛固酮增多症(Idiopathic hyperaldosteronism,IHA) 最常見的臨床亞型[10, 20],癥狀多不典型,病理為雙側腎上腺球狀帶增生。曾認為佔PHA的10%~20%,但ARR用於篩查後,其比例顯著增加,約60%左右。與垂體產生的醛固酮刺激因子有關,對血管緊張素敏感,腎素雖受抑制,但腎素對體位改變及其他刺激仍有反應,醛固酮分泌及臨床表現一般較腺瘤輕。2.醛固酮腺瘤(Aldosterone-producing adenomas,APA) 臨床表現典型。曾認為佔PHA的60%~70%,但ARR用於篩查後,其比例約佔40%~50%[21, 22]。醛固酮分泌不受腎素及血管緊張素Ⅱ的影響。單側佔90%,其中左側多見,雙側約10%。腫瘤呈圓形、橘黃色,一般較小,僅1~2 cm左右。電鏡下瘤細胞呈球狀帶細胞特徵。直徑<0.5 cm者,在病理上難與結節性增生相鑒別。>3~4 cm者腎上腺醛固酮腺癌的可能性增加。3.單側腎上腺增生(Unilateral adrenal hyperplasia, UNAH) 具有典型的原醛表現,病理多為單側或以一側腎上腺結節性增生為主。UNAH癥狀的嚴重程度介於APA和IHA之間,可能是APA的早期或IHA發展到一定時期的變型。其比例只佔1%~2%[19]。單側腎上腺全切術後,高血壓和低血鉀可長期緩解(>5年)。4.分泌醛固酮的腺癌 腎上腺醛固酮癌罕見,約1%[23]。腫瘤直徑常>5cm,形態不規則。進展快,對手術、藥物和放射治療療效均不理想。術後複發率約70%,5年生存率52%[23]。5.家族性醛固酮增多症(Familial hyperaldosteronism,FH) FH -Ⅰ即糖皮質激素可抑制性醛固酮增多症(Glucocorticoid–remediable aldosteronism,GRA),是一種常染色體顯性遺傳病。高血壓與低血鉀不十分嚴重,常規降壓藥無效,但糖皮質激素可維持血壓和低血鉀正常。腎上腺皮質細胞內基因結構異常,8號染色體的11β-羥化酶基因結構發生嵌合改變,皮質醇合成酶的5』-ACTH反應啟動子調節區(CYP11B1)與3』-醛固酮合成酶(CYP11B2)的編碼融合(CYP11B1/CYP11B2),產生兩種酶的混合體,表達球狀帶和束狀帶,醛固酮的分泌受ACTH的調節,而非腎素-血管緊張素系統,體內醛固酮分泌量明顯增加。同時CYP11B1/CYP11B2還可將皮質醇作為底物合成具有皮質醇-醛固酮混合作用的C-18氧化皮質醇(其代謝產物為18-羥皮質醇、18-氧代皮質醇)[24, 25]。腎上腺組織可輕度瀰漫性增生到嚴重的結節性增生。FH-Ⅱ病因機制尚不完全清楚,但不同於FH -Ⅰ,糖皮質激素治療無效,腎上腺切除可治癒或顯著緩解高血壓[18]。可能與多個染色體位點異常改變如7p22有關[18, 26]。6.異位分泌醛固酮的腫瘤 罕見,可發生於腎臟內的腎上腺殘餘或卵巢腫瘤(如畸胎瘤)。(二)病理和病理生理過量的醛固酮作用於腎遠曲小管,鈉–鉀交換增加,鈉水瀦留、低血鉀,導致高血壓和鹼中毒。除腎上腺的病理改變外,腎臟可因長期缺鉀引起近曲小管、遠曲小管和集合管上皮細胞變性,嚴重者散在性腎小管壞死,腎小管功能重度紊亂。常繼發腎盂腎炎,可有腎小球透明變性。長期高血壓可致腎小動脈硬化。慢性失鉀致肌細胞蛻變,橫紋消失。三、臨床表現PHA的主要臨床表現是高血壓和低血鉀。以往認為低血鉀是PHA診斷的必要條件[27, 28],有研究發現僅9%~37%的PHA患者表現低血鉀[29]。50%的APA和17%的IHA患者的血鉀水平<3.5 mmol/L。血鉀正常、高血壓是大部分PHA患者的早期癥狀,而低血鉀可能是癥狀加重的表現。由於高血壓和低血鉀伴鹼中毒,病人可有如下癥狀:頭痛、肌肉無力和抽搐、乏力、暫時性麻痹、肢體容易麻木、針刺感等;口渴、多尿,夜尿增多。低血鉀時,病人的生理反射可以不正常。PHA心腦血管病變的發生率和死亡率高於相同程度的原發性高血壓。四、診 斷PHA的診斷主要是根據臨床表現對可疑病人的篩查、定性診斷和分型定位診斷等,可疑家族性遺傳傾向者尚需基因篩查。(一)可疑人群的篩查1.推薦下列高血壓人群應行PHA篩查試驗[30-32](1)難治性高血壓,或高血壓2級(JNC)(>160~179/100~109 mmHg),3級(>180/110 mmHg);(2)不能解釋的低血鉀(包括自發性或利尿劑誘發者);(3)發病年齡早者(<50歲);(4)早發性家族史,或腦血管意外<40歲者;(5)腎上腺偶發瘤;(6)PHA一級親屬高血壓者;(7)與高血壓嚴重程度不成比例的臟器受損(如左心室肥厚、頸動脈硬化等)證據者。2.推薦血漿ARR為首選篩查試驗 需標化試驗條件[5, 31, 33](直立體位、糾正低血鉀、排除藥物影響),以使ARR結果更加準確可靠。結果可疑多次重複。血漿醛固酮>15ng/dl,腎素活性>0.2 ng/ml/h,計算ARR有意義。多種藥物治療可能干擾ARR的測定:如安體舒通、β受體阻滯劑、鈣通道阻滯劑、血管緊張素轉換酶抑製劑、血管緊張素受體阻滯劑等,建議試驗前至少停用安體舒通6周以上,其它上述藥物2周。α-受體阻滯劑和非二氫吡啶類鈣拮抗劑等對腎素和醛固酮水平影響較小,在診斷PHA過程中,推薦短期應用控制血壓。3.不推薦下列檢查作為篩查手段,但可為PHA的診斷提供線索和佐證。(1)單純血漿醛固酮或腎素濃度,前者的升高不能區分原發與繼發,後者的降低並非PHA的特有表現。(2)血鉀、尿鉀檢測:低血鉀診斷PHA的靈敏度、特異度、陽性預測值均低。1)正常情況下,當血鉀3.5mmol/L時,24小時尿鉀多<2~3mmol/L;2)PHA在血鉀<3.5mmol/L時,尿鉀>25mmol/L;3)PHA在血鉀<3.0mmol/L時,尿鉀>20mmol/L。(3)腎上腺CT:理論上不應作為篩查手段,但並非國內每個醫療單位均具備內分泌檢驗條件,故結合國情推薦之,以方便早期發現腎上腺可疑線索,減少延誤。(二)PHA的定性診斷1.推薦下列四項檢查之一用於確診[30, 31, 34]。(1)高鹽飲食負荷試驗;(2)氟氫可的松抑制試驗;(3)生理鹽水滴注試驗;(4)卡托普利抑制試驗。2.注意事項 確診試驗的理論基礎是PHA的過量醛固酮分泌不被鈉鹽負荷或腎素-血管緊張素系統的阻斷等因素抑制。目前證據尚不能證明四種試驗何者更優,敏感性和特異性均在90%以上。應根據經濟花費、病人的狀況和依從性、實驗室條件和地區經驗等因素任選一種。但須注意口服和靜脈攝鈉的相關試驗(前3種)禁用於重度高血壓或充血性心力衰竭者[35]。服用卡托普利後測ARR比值,可以增加卡托普利抑制試驗診斷PHA的準確性;對於APA和IHA的患者,其測定的醛固酮結果有差別,APA者仍然升高,IHA反而下降[18]。(三)PHA的定位和分型診斷方法1.影像定位(1)推薦首選腎上腺CT平掃加增強:上腹部CT薄層掃描(2~3 mm)可檢出直徑>5 mm的腎上腺腫物。APA 多<1~2 cm,低密度或等密度,強化不明顯,CT值低於分泌皮質醇的腺瘤和嗜鉻細胞瘤。>3~4 cm者可能為醛固酮癌[36]。檢查中必須注意肝面和腎臟面的小腺瘤[37]。CT測量腎上腺各肢的厚度可用來鑒別APA和IHA,厚度>5 mm,應考慮IHA[38]。CT診斷定位單側PHA的敏感性和特異性分別為78%和75%[21, 39]。但不能單獨依賴CT定位:CT不能區分結節樣增生的IHA,小的APA可能漏診。APA正確定位率僅53%,其中<1 cm者僅25%[21, 36];約47%的APA診斷失策:以CT為依據被不恰當排除手術或手術者分別為22%和25%[21]。CT和AVS之間的符合率僅54%[39]。41%的CT正常者,AVS提示單側腎上腺醛固酮高分泌;51%的CT單側小結節,AVS提示對側高分泌;46%的CT雙側病變,AVS提示單側高分泌[21]。(2)不推薦下列檢查定位:①MRI:空間解析度低於CT,可能出現運動偽像[40],僅用於CT造影劑過敏者[31];②超聲檢查;③131I-19-碘化固醇掃描顯像[41]。2.功能定位和分型 功能分側定位非常重要,是決定治療方案的基礎。因為APA、單側腎上腺增生與IHA、GRA的治療方法不同[42-47]。(1)推薦有條件的單位選擇腎上腺靜脈取血(adrenal vein sample, AVS):AVS是分側定位PHA的金標準,敏感性和特異性分別為95%和100%,併發症發生率<2.5%[21, 39]。依據24肽促腎上腺皮質激素給予與否分為兩種方法,各有優缺點,促腎上腺皮質激素能夠強烈刺激醛固酮分泌,有助於放大雙側腎上腺之間醛固酮水平的差異,準確性高,但操作要求高,容易失敗。不予藥物直接取血者準確性稍差,但仍在90%以上,且方法簡單可靠[21, 36, 37],推薦作為AVS的操作方法。AVS失敗率約5%~10%[48]。皮質醇校正的醛固酮比值高低兩側之比> 4,確定為單側優勢分泌,手術效果將良好[21, 49] [31]。試驗結果分析要注意插管的位置是否正確:① 兩側腎上腺靜脈的皮質醇濃度之比應<1.5,接近1;② 腎上腺靜脈內與下腔靜脈的皮質醇之比應>2.5。AVS為有創檢查,費用高,僅推薦於PHA確診、擬行手術治療,但CT顯示為「正常」腎上腺、單側肢體增厚、單側小腺瘤(<1 cm)、雙側腺瘤等[48, 50]。對於年齡<40歲者,如CT為明顯的單側孤立腎上腺腺瘤,不推薦AVS,直接手術[21, 51]。(2)卧立位醛固酮試驗:APA不易受體位改變引起的血管緊張素-Ⅱ的影響,而IAH則反之。體位試驗的準確性為85%[47]。推薦於AVS失敗的單側病變[52, 53]。(3)18 -羥基皮質酮:APA患者中明顯升高,且與IHA幾乎沒有重疊,是無創性鑒別病因的較好方法,但缺乏足夠的準確性[47, 54]。3.家族性PHA的診斷(1)FH -Ⅰ(GRA):發病年齡早,其中50%<18歲者為中、重度高血壓。18%的GRA並發腦血管意外(32±11歲),其中70%為腦出血,病死率61%[55, 56]。GRA的早期診斷具有重要意義。1)推薦下列PHA者行 FH篩查:① 確診時年齡<20歲;② 家族性者;③ 年齡<40歲合併腦血管意外者。2)檢查方法:推薦Southern印跡法或長-PCR法檢測CYP11B1/CYP11B2基因[57, 58]。不推薦尿18-羥皮質醇、18-氧代皮質醇以及地塞米松抑制試驗[59]。(2)FH -Ⅱ:2名以上PHA家庭成員,長-PCR法排除FH -Ⅰ者。(四)PHA的鑒別診斷臨床上還有一些疾病表現為高血壓、低血鉀,在確診和治療PHA前需要進行鑒別診斷。1.繼發性醛固酮增多症如分泌腎素的腫瘤、腎動脈狹窄等;2.原發性低腎素性高血壓:約15%~20% 原發性高血壓患者的腎素是被抑制的,易與IAH混淆,但開搏通試驗血漿醛固酮水平被抑制;3.先天性腎上腺皮質增生;4.Liddle綜合征 又稱假性醛固酮增多症,由於腎小管上皮細胞膜上鈉通道蛋白異常,多為蛋白的β,γ亞單位基因突變,使鈉通道常處激活狀態,臨床表現中除醛固酮低外,其他與PHA幾乎一致。五、治 療根據病因,選擇手術或藥物治療。(一)手術治療1.推薦手術指征[30, 31, 60, 61] ①醛固酮瘤(APA);②單側腎上腺增生(UNAH);③分泌醛固酮腎上腺皮質癌或異位腫瘤;④由於藥物副作用不能耐受長期藥物治療的IHA者。2.手術方法(1)APA推薦首選腹腔鏡腎上腺腫瘤切除術,儘可能保留腎上腺組織[62]。腹腔鏡與開放手術療效一致[63-65]。如疑多發性APA者,推薦患側腎上腺全切除術[66]。(2)UNAH推薦醛固酮優勢分泌側腹腔鏡腎上腺全切[30, 31, 60, 61]。(3)IHA、GRA:以藥物治療為主,雙側腎上腺全切仍難控制高血壓和低血鉀,不推薦手術。但當患者因藥物副作用無法堅持內科治療時可考慮手術,切除醛固酮分泌較多側或體積較大側腎上腺[67]。單側或雙側腎上腺切除術後高血壓治癒率僅19%[31]。3.圍手術期處理(1)術前準備:注意心、腎、腦和血管系統的評估。糾正高血壓、低血鉀。腎功能正常者,推薦螺內酯術前準備,劑量100~400 mg,每天2~4次。如果低血鉀嚴重,應口服或靜脈補鉀。一般準備1~2周,在此期間,注意監控病人血壓和血鉀的變化。腎功能不全者,螺內酯酌減,以防止高血鉀。血壓控制不理想者,加用其他降壓藥物[61]。(2)術後處理:術後第1天即停鉀鹽、螺內酯和降壓藥物,如血壓波動可據實調整藥物[68]。靜脈補液應有適量生理鹽水,無需氯化鉀(除非血鉀<3 mmol/L)。術後最初幾周推薦鈉鹽豐富的飲食,以免對側腎上腺被長期抑制、醛固酮分泌不足導致高血鉀[68]。罕見情況可能需要糖皮質激素的補充。(二)藥物治療主要是鹽皮質激素受體拮抗劑,鈣離子通道阻斷劑、血管緊張素轉換酶抑製劑(ACEI)等也具一定療效。醛固酮合成抑製劑雖處研究階段,但可能是將來的方向。1.治療指征 ①IHA;②GRA;③不能耐受手術或不願手術的APA者。2.藥物選擇(1)螺內酯(安體舒通):推薦首選。結合鹽皮質激素受體,拮抗醛固酮。初始劑量20~40 mg/日,漸遞增,最大<400 mg/日,2~4次/日,以維持血鉀在正常值上限內為度。可使48%的患者血壓<140/90 mmHg,其中50%可單葯控制。如血壓控制欠佳,聯用其他降壓藥物如噻嗪類。主要副作用多因其與孕激素受體、雄激素受體結合有關,痛性男性乳腺發育、陽痿、性慾減退、女性月經不調等,發生率為劑量依賴性,<50 mg,6.9%;>150 mg,52%[69]。(2)依普利酮:推薦於不能耐受螺內酯者。高選擇性醛固酮受體拮抗劑。與雄激素受體和黃體酮受體的親和力分別為螺內酯的0.1%和1%,性相關副作用的發生率顯著降低[70]。但拮抗活性僅約螺內酯的60%。50~200 mg/d,分2次[71],初始劑量25 mg/d。(3)鈉通道拮抗劑:阿米洛利。保鉀排鈉利尿劑,初始劑量為每天10~40mg,分次口服,能較好控制血壓和血鉀[72]。沒有螺內酯的副作用。(4)鈣離子通道阻斷劑:抑制醛固酮分泌和血管平滑肌收縮。如硝苯地平、氨氯地平、尼卡地平等[73, 74]。(5)ACEI和血管緊張素受體阻斷劑:減少IHA醛固酮的產生。常用卡托普利、依那普利等[75]。(6)糖皮質激素:推薦用於GRA。初始劑量,地塞米松0.125~0.25mg/d,或強的松2.5~5 mg/d,睡前服,以維持正常血壓、血鉀和ACTH水平的最小劑量為佳,通常小於生理替代劑量[30, 31, 60, 61]。血壓控制不滿意者加用依普利酮,特別是兒童[18]。3.注意事項 藥物治療需監測血壓、血鉀、腎功能。螺內酯和依普利酮在腎功能受損者(GFR<60 mL/min·1.73m2)慎用,腎功能不全者禁用,以免高血鉀[31]。六、預後和隨訪(一)預後APA和單側腎上腺增生者術後100%的患者血鉀正常、血壓改善,35%~60%高血壓治癒(BP<140/90 mmHg,不需服用降壓藥物)[76-78]。80%的患者於1月內血壓正常或最大幅下降並穩定,其餘的也多不超過6月,但也有在1年內可繼續下降者[31, 79]。服用螺內酯等藥物的IHA患者19%~71%血壓能夠控制,87%的血壓有所改善[20]。術後血壓改善顯著的預後因素包括[76-78, 80, 81]:① 高血壓病史<5年[82];②術前螺內酯治療有效[77, 83];③術前<2種降壓藥物滿意控制血壓[78];④術前高ARR比值;⑤沒有高血壓家族史。反之,則術後高血壓緩解不明顯。腎上腺手術後血壓持續升高的原因尚不清楚,可能與診斷時年齡過大或者高血壓病史過長有關,也可能是診斷或手術適應證選擇不恰當,但最常見的原因是PHA合併原發性高血壓[78]。(二) 隨訪1.隨訪目的 ①了解治療效果、判斷治療方案是否合理;②可能的多發醛固酮瘤;③了解藥物治療副作用。2.隨訪內容 ①臨床癥狀;②血壓的評估;③常規血生化檢查:電解質、肝腎功能(尤其螺內酯等藥物治療者);④內分泌學檢查:血、尿醛固酮,血漿腎素活性水平;⑤腹部CT檢查:了解對側腎上腺和/或患側殘留腺體的情況;藥物治療者需與治療前的腎上腺對比評估。3.隨訪方案 ①術後短期內即可複查腎素活性和醛固酮,了解早期生化變化[81]。②第1次隨訪術後4~6周,主要評估血壓、血電解質及有無手術併發症。③術後3月待對側腎上腺正常功能恢復後,可根據情況行氟氫可的松抑制試驗等生化方法了解PHA是否治癒[84]。④每6個月1次,連續2年以上,藥物治療者長期隨訪。七、原發性醛固酮增多症診治流程圖● <40歲● 單側結節>1cm● 對側腎上腺正常● 雙側腫物● 單側或雙側增生?雙側均正常擬手術無意手術腹腔鏡腎上腺部分或全切除AVSAPA或UNAHIHA藥物治療疑似PHA的高血壓者ARR篩查-● ARR≥ 40確診試驗排除PHA-確診PHA腎上腺CT+排除PHA參考文獻[1] Mulatero P, Rabbia F, Milan A, et al. Drug effects on aldosterone/plasma renin activity ratio in primary aldosteronism. Hypertension, 2002,40(6):897-902.[2] Kaplan NM. The current epidemic of primary aldosteronism: causes and consequences. J Hypertens, 2004,22(5):863-9.[3] Lamarre-Cliche M, de Champlain J, Lacourciere Y, et al. Effects of circadian rhythms, posture, and medication on renin-aldosterone interrelations in essential hypertensives. Am J Hypertens, 2005,18(1):56-64.[4] Mulatero P, Morello F, Veglio F. Genetics of primary aldosteronism. J Hypertens, 2004,22(4):663-70.[5] Rossi GP, Bernini G, Caliumi C, et al. A prospective study of the prevalence of primary aldosteronism in 1,125 hypertensive patients. J Am Coll Cardiol, 2006,48(11):2293-300.[6] Fardella CE, Mosso L, Gomez-Sanchez C, et al. Primary hyperaldosteronism in essential hypertensives: prevalence, biochemical profile, and molecular biology. J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 2000,85(5):1863-7.[7] Gordon RD, Stowasser M, Tunny TJ, et al. High incidence of primary aldosteronism in 199 patients referred with hypertension. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol, 1994,21(4):315-8.[8] Grim CE, Weinberger MH, Higgins JT, et al. Diagnosis of secondary forms of hypertension. A comprehensive protocol. JAMA, 1977,237(13):1331-5.[9] Hamlet SM, Tunny TJ, Woodland E, et al. Is aldosterone/renin ratio useful to screen a hypertensive population for primary aldosteronism. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol, 1985,12(3):249-52.[10] Lim PO, Dow E, Brennan G, et al. High prevalence of primary aldosteronism in the Tayside hypertension clinic population. J Hum Hypertens, 2000,14(5):311-5.[11] Loh KC, Koay ES, Khaw MC, et al. Prevalence of primary aldosteronism among Asian hypertensive patients in Singapore. J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 2000,85(8):2854-9.[12] Mosso L, Carvajal C, Gonzalez A, et al. Primary aldosteronism and hypertensive disease. Hypertension, 2003,42(2):161-5.[13] Schwartz GL, Turner ST. Screening for primary aldosteronism in essential hypertension: diagnostic accuracy of the ratio of plasma aldosterone concentration to plasma renin activity. Clin Chem, 2005,51(2):386-94.[14] Calhoun DA, Nishizaka MK, Zaman MA, et al. Hyperaldosteronism among black and white subjects with resistant hypertension. Hypertension, 2002,40(6):892-6.[15] Gallay BJ, Ahmad S, Xu L, et al. Screening for primary aldosteronism without discontinuing hypertensive medications: plasma aldosterone-renin ratio. Am J Kidney Dis, 2001,37(4):699-705.[16] 劉定益, 邵冰峰, 祝宇, 等. 原發性醛固酮增多症(附507例報告). 中華泌尿外科雜誌, 2001,(07):28-31.[17] Suzuki H. Pathophysiology and diagnosis of primary aldosteronism. Biomed Pharmacother, 2000,54 Suppl 1:118s-123s.[18] Stowasser M, Gordon RD. Familial hyperaldosteronism. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol, 2001,78(3):215-29.[19] Young WF Jr. Primary aldosteronism - treatment options. Growth Horm IGF Res, 2003,13 Suppl A:S102-8.[20] Stowasser M, Gordon RD, Gunasekera TG, et al. High rate of detection of primary aldosteronism, including surgically treatable forms, after "non-selective" screening of hypertensive patients. J Hypertens, 2003,21(11):2149-57.[21] Young WF, Stanson AW, Thompson GB, et al. Role for adrenal venous sampling in primary aldosteronism. Surgery, 2004,136(6):1227-35.[22] Stowasser M, Gordon RD. Primary aldosteronism--careful investigation is essential and rewarding. Mol Cell Endocrinol, 2004,217(1-2):33-9.[23] Kendrick ML, Curlee K, Lloyd R, et al. Aldosterone-secreting adrenocortical carcinomas are associated with unique operative risks and outcomes. Surgery, 2002,132(6):1008-11; discussion 1012.[24] Dluhy RG, Lifton RP. Glucocorticoid-remediable aldosteronism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 1999,84(12):4341-4.[25] Mansfield TA, Simon DB, Farfel Z, et al. Multilocus linkage of familial hyperkalaemia and hypertension, pseudohypoaldosteronism type II, to chromosomes 1q31-42 and 17p11-q21. Nat Genet, 1997,16(2):202-5.[26] Gordon RD, Laragh JH, Funder JW. Low renin hypertensive states: perspectives, unsolved problems, future research. Trends Endocrinol Metab, 2005,16(3):108-13.[27] Streeten DH, Tomycz N, Anderson GH. Reliability of screening methods for the diagnosis of primary aldosteronism. Am J Med, 1979,67(3):403-13.[28] Sinclair AM, Isles CG, Brown I, et al. Secondary hypertension in a blood pressure clinic. Arch Intern Med, 1987,147(7):1289-93.[29] Mulatero P, Stowasser M, Loh KC, et al. Increased diagnosis of primary aldosteronism, including surgically correctable forms, in centers from five continents. J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 2004,89(3):1045-50.[30] Rossi GP, Pessina AC, Heagerty AM. Primary aldosteronism: an update on screening, diagnosis and treatment. J Hypertens, 2008,26(4):613-21.[31] Funder JW, Carey RM, Fardella C, et al. Case detection, diagnosis, and treatment of patients with primary aldosteronism: an endocrine society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 2008,93(9):3266-81.[32] Rossi GP, Seccia TM, Pessina AC. Primary aldosteronism - part I: prevalence, screening, and selection of cases for adrenal vein sampling. J Nephrol, 2008,21(4):447-54.[33] Mulatero P, Dluhy RG, Giacchetti G, et al. Diagnosis of primary aldosteronism: from screening to subtype differentiation. Trends Endocrinol Metab, 2005,16(3):114-9.[34] Boscaro M, Ronconi V, Turchi F, et al. Diagnosis and management of primary aldosteronism. Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes, 2008,15(4):332-8.[35] Lim PO, Farquharson CA, Shiels P, et al. Adverse cardiac effects of salt with fludrocortisone in hypertension. Hypertension, 2001,37(3):856-61.[36] Gordon RD. Diagnostic investigations in primary aldosteronism. In:Zanchetti A ed. Clinical medicine series on hypertension. Maidenhead,UK:McGraw-Hill International,2001:101-111.[37] 孫福康, 周文龍, 吳瑜璇, 等. 影像學診斷在原發性醛固酮增多症手術治療中的價值. 上海交通大學學報(醫學版), 2007,(02):216-217+220.[38] Lingam RK, Sohaib SA, Vlahos I, et al. CT of primary hyperaldosteronism (Conn"s syndrome): the value of measuring the adrenal gland. AJR Am J Roentgenol, 2003,181(3):843-9.[39] Nwariaku FE, Miller BS, Auchus R, et al. Primary hyperaldosteronism: effect of adrenal vein sampling on surgical outcome. Arch Surg, 2006,141(5):497-502; discussion 502-3.[40] Rossi GP, Chiesura-Corona M, Tregnaghi A, et al. Imaging of aldosterone-secreting adenomas: a prospective comparison of computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging in 27 patients with suspected primary aldosteronism. J Hum Hypertens, 1993,7(4):357-63.[41] Mansoor GA, Malchoff CD, Arici MH, et al. Unilateral adrenal hyperplasia causing primary aldosteronism: limitations of I-131 norcholesterol scanning. Am J Hypertens, 2002,15(5):459-64.[42] Baer L, Sommers SC, Krakoff LR, et al. Pseudo-primary aldosteronism. An entity distinct from true primary aldosteronism. Circ Res, 1970,27(1 Suppl 1):203-20.[43] Gunnells JC Jr, Bath NM, Sode J, et al. Prinary aldosteronism. Arch Intern Med, 1967,120(5):568-74.[44] Priestley JT, Ferris DO, ReMine WH, et al. Primary aldosteronism: surgical management and pathologic findings. Mayo Clin Proc, 1968,43(11):761-75.[45] Rhamy RK, McCoy RM, Scott HW Jr, et al. Primary aldosteronism: experience with current diagnostic criteria and surgical treatment in fourteen patients. Ann Surg, 1968,167(5):718-27.[46] Weinberger MH, Grim CE, Hollifield JW, et al. Primary aldosteronism: diagnosis, localization, and treatment. Ann Intern Med, 1979,90(3):386-95.[47] Young WF Jr, Klee GG. Primary aldosteronism. Diagnostic evaluation. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am, 1988,17(2):367-95.[48] Moo TA, Zarnegar R, Duh QY. Prediction of successful outcome in patients with primary aldosteronism. Curr Treat Options Oncol, 2007,8(4):314-21.[49] Magill SB, Raff H, Shaker JL, et al. Comparison of adrenal vein sampling and computed tomography in the differentiation of primary aldosteronism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 2001,86(3):1066-71.[50] Young WF Jr. Clinical practice. The incidentally discovered adrenal mass. N Engl J Med, 2007,356(6):601-10.[51] Tan YY, Ogilvie JB, Triponez F, et al. Selective use of adrenal venous sampling in the lateralization of aldosterone-producing adenomas. World J Surg, 2006,30(5):879-85; discussion 886-7.[52] Espiner EA, Ross DG, Yandle TG, et al. Predicting surgically remedial primary aldosteronism: role of adrenal scanning, posture testing, and adrenal vein sampling. J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 2003,88(8):3637-44.[53] Phillips JL, Walther MM, Pezzullo JC, et al. Predictive value of preoperative tests in discriminating bilateral adrenal hyperplasia from an aldosterone-producing adrenal adenoma. J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 2000,85(12):4526-33.[54] Biglieri EG, Schambelan M. The significance of elevated levels of plasma 18-hydroxycorticosterone in patients with primary aldosteronism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 1979,49(1):87-91.[55] Dluhy RG, Anderson B, Harlin B, et al. Glucocorticoid-remediable aldosteronism is associated with severe hypertension in early childhood. J Pediatr, 2001,138(5):715-20.[56] Litchfield WR, Anderson BF, Weiss RJ, et al. Intracranial aneurysm and hemorrhagic stroke in glucocorticoid-remediable aldosteronism. Hypertension, 1998,31(1 Pt 2):445-50.[57] Lifton RP, Dluhy RG, Powers M, et al. A chimaeric 11 beta-hydroxylase/aldosterone synthase gene causes glucocorticoid-remediable aldosteronism and human hypertension. Nature, 1992,355(6357):262-5.[58] Jonsson JR, Klemm SA, Tunny TJ, et al. A new genetic test for familial hyperaldosteronism type I aids in the detection of curable hypertension. Biochem Biophys Res Commun, 1995,207(2):565-71.[59] Fardella CE, Pinto M, Mosso L, et al. Genetic study of patients with dexamethasone-suppressible aldosteronism without the chimeric CYP11B1/CYP11B2 gene. J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 2001,86(10):4805-7.[60] Rossi GP, Seccia TM, Pessina AC. Primary aldosteronism: part II: subtype differentiation and treatment. J Nephrol, 2008,21(4):455-62.[61] Sywak M, Pasieka JL. Long-term follow-up and cost benefit of adrenalectomy in patients with primary hyperaldosteronism. Br J Surg, 2002,89(12):1587-93.[62] 楊慶, 李漢忠, Qing Y, 等. 後腹腔鏡下保留腎上腺手術治療腺瘤型原發性醛固酮增多症. 中華泌尿外科雜誌, 2008,(11).[63] Rossi H, Kim A, Prinz RA. Primary hyperaldosteronism in the era of laparoscopic adrenalectomy. Am Surg, 2002,68(3):253-6; discussion 256-7.[64] Gonzalez R, Smith CD, 3rd MDA, et al. Laparoscopic approach reduces likelihood of perioperative complications in patients undergoing adrenalectomy. Am Surg, 2004,70(8):668-74.[65] Jacobsen NE, Campbell JB, Hobart MG. Laparoscopic versus open adrenalectomy for surgical adrenal disease. Can J Urol, 2003,10(5):1995-9.[66] Calvo-Romero JM, Ramos-Salado JL. Recurrence of adrenal aldosterone-producing adenoma. Postgrad Med J, 2000,76(893):160-1.[67] Ganguly A. Primary aldosteronism. N Engl J Med, 1998,339(25):1828-34.[68] Mattsson C, Young WF Jr. Primary aldosteronism: diagnostic and treatment strategies. Nat Clin Pract Nephrol, 2006,2(4):198-208; quiz, 1 p following 230.[69] Young WF. Primary aldosteronism: renaissance of a syndrome. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf), 2007,66(5):607-18.[70] de Gasparo M, Joss U, Ramjoue HP, et al. Three new epoxy-spirolactone derivatives: characterization in vivo and in vitro. J Pharmacol Exp Ther, 1987,240(2):650-6.[71] Karagiannis A, Tziomalos K, Papageorgiou A, et al. Spironolactone versus eplerenone for the treatment of idiopathic hyperaldosteronism. Expert Opin Pharmacother, 2008,9(4):509-15.[72] Lim PO, Young WF, MacDonald TM. A review of the medical treatment of primary aldosteronism. J Hypertens, 2001,19(3):353-61.[73] Veglio F, Pinna G, Bisbocci D, et al. Efficacy of nicardipine slow release (SR) on hypertension, potassium balance and plasma aldosterone in idiopathic aldosteronism. J Hum Hypertens, 1990,4(5):579-82.[74] Carpene G, Rocco S, Opocher G, et al. Acute and chronic effect of nifedipine in primary aldosteronism. Clin Exp Hypertens A, 1989,11(7):1263-72.[75] Zacharieva S, Atanassova I, Natchev E, et al. Effect of short-term losartan treatment in patients with primary aldosteronism and essential hypertension. Methods Find Exp Clin Pharmacol, 2001,23(3):153-6.[76] Celen O, O"Brien MJ, Melby JC, et al. Factors influencing outcome of surgery for primary aldosteronism. Arch Surg, 1996,131(6):646-50.[77] Meyer A, Brabant G, Behrend M. Long-term follow-up after adrenalectomy for primary aldosteronism. World J Surg, 2005,29(2):155-9.[78] Sawka AM, Young WF, Thompson GB, et al. Primary aldosteronism: factors associated with normalization of blood pressure after surgery. Ann Intern Med, 2001,135(4):258-61.[79] 劉定益, 張翀宇, 邵遠, 等. 影響腎上腺皮質醛固酮瘤術後血壓恢復的相關因素分析. 中華外科雜誌, 2004,(10):14-16.[80] Streeten DH, Anderson GH Jr, Wagner S. Effect of age on response of secondary hypertension to specific treatment. Am J Hypertens, 1990,3(5 Pt 1):360-5.[81] Young WF Jr. Minireview: primary aldosteronism--changing concepts in diagnosis and treatment. Endocrinology, 2003,144(6):2208-13.[82] Giacchetti G, Ronconi V, Rilli S, et al. Small tumor size as favourable prognostic factor after adrenalectomy in Conn"s adenoma. Eur J Endocrinol, 2009.[83] Harris DA, Au-Yong I, Basnyat PS, et al. Review of surgical management of aldosterone secreting tumours of the adrenal cortex. Eur J Surg Oncol, 2003,29(5):467-74.[84] Rutherford JC, Taylor WL, Stowasser M, et al. Success of surgery for primary aldosteronism judged by residual autonomous aldosterone production. World J Surg, 1998,22(12):1243-5.
推薦閱讀:
推薦閱讀:
※群邑預計2011年中國廣告花費增幅將達11%
※2011切爾西花展
※聊2011年風水6
※2011年戀情易變的星座
※2011年郵市將現主升浪