Understanding and Treating rocrastination: A Review of a Common Self-Regulatory Failure 國外拖延文獻

05-19

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Alexander Rozental*, Per Carlbring

Division of Clinical Psychology, Department of Psychology, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden

Email: alexander.rozental@psychology.su.se

Received 4 July 2014; revised 1 August 2014; accepted 25 August 2014

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3.2. Behavioral Interventions

Treatment interventions intended to reduce procrastination often consist of several behavioral measures that increase automaticity, facilitate time management, and prevent the individual from becoming distracted while working on tasks and assignments (van Eerde, 2000). First, since procrastination is defined as an active choice between competing activities, limiting the number of decisions involved in performing commitments is essential

(Silver, 1974). Stimulus control can, for instance, be used to remove aspects that might interfere with the initiation or completion of a given course of action (Mulry, Fleming, & Gottschalk, 1994), such as disabling notifications on the computer or smartphone and using designated work areas free from distractions and other forms of immediate gratification. Likewise, stimulus cues can prescribe when and where to engage in actions related to

work (Ziesat, Rosenthal, & White, 1978)—for instance, scheduling tasks and assignments to be done in specific locations, such as the library or the office. This might also facilitate automaticity, as it becomes less ambiguous in which context the individual is supposed to perform his or her commitments (Neal, Wood, Labrecque, & Lally, 2012). In general, all treatment interventions that promote routine are fundamental in inhibiting procrastination (Steel, 2007), similar to using timetables and predetermined activities in a behavioral activation treatment for depression (Jacobson, Martell, & Dimidjian, 2001). Establishing routines is also important in order to create a normal diurnal rhythm and to prevent mental fatigue, thus enhancing performance and aligning the individual with social zeitgebers—for instance, working on commitments during daytime and using the evening to recover

or to engage in social activities (Ehlers, Frank, & Kupfer, 1988). A similar concept is derived from ego depletion (Baumeister, Bratlavsky, Muraven, & Tice, 1998), referred to as the decrease in self-control caused by a lack of energy. Preventing ego depletion is important in averting procrastination, as procrastinators often tend to postpone their commitments until the last minute or to work long periods without pausing, resulting in insufficient energy to perform well, which in turn produces more procrastination (Digdon & Howell, 2006).

Second, because procrastination is associated with avoidance behavior, gradually exposing the individual to the avoided activity should be beneficial in reducing the feelings that lead to deferring tasks and assignments (Brown, 1991). Boredom, worry, and unpleasantness are several experiences reported by procrastinators (Schraw, Wadkins, & Olafson, 2007), indicating that some form of exposure is probably required to break through the initial threshold that inhibits the individual from engaging in his or her commitments. Prescribing

the minimal amount of effort the individual is willing to exert could be implemented as a means of overcoming the feelings that cause procrastination (Burka & Yuen, 2008)—for instance, working for fifteen minutes before evaluating whether to continue. This minimal level can be determined by either input, the effort that needs to be put into the activity, or output, the result that needs to be achieved (Steel, 2012). In addition, goal setting is generally acknowledged as an essential treatment intervention for procrastination because insufficient or inadequate goals often impair problem solving and lower motivation (Locke & Latham, 2002). Norcross (2012) formulates this as 「vague goals beget vague efforts」, highlighting the importance of setting goals that are specific enough to be instructive and measurable in order to promote the performance of goal-directed behaviors. Concrete goals

can also enhance productivity, as they provide feedback that can correct performance and reinforce the intended behavior (Lindsley et al., 1995). Furthermore, goal setting should always be accompanied by dividing long-term goals into subgoals since this helps the individual with issues related to time management (Steel & K?nig, 2006),

particularly in terms of goals that involve considerable effort.

Third, procrastination is often related to a lack of value, leading the individual to postpone fulfilling a commitment in favor of activities that generate more immediate gratification (Steel, 2007). This can partly be circumvented by using adequate goal setting that increases motivation (Boice, 1989). However, for many procrastinators, most tasks and assignments that need completion will probably be experienced as unrewarding, war-

A. Rozental, P. Carlbring1496ranting treatment interventions that specifically target the value of performing the correct actions (Bandura & Schunk, 1981). Basically, this involves increasing extrinsic or intrinsic motivation, depending on individual preferences and the type of commitment being postponed (Steel, 2007). Extrinsic motivation benefits from using

rewards that are contingent on the implementation of a certain behavior (Eisenberg, Cortis Park, & Frank, 1976), such as having a cup of coffee after completing one hour of writing. Eisenberg (1992) refers to this as learned industriousness, using continuous reinforcers when working on tasks and assignments instead of rewarding only the outcome, a concept similar to Premack』s principle (Premack, 1959), the idea that high-frequency behaviors

reinforce low-frequency behaviors. Some individuals might also profit from fusing (Murray, 1938), combining the commitment being postponed with an activity that is experienced as more rewarding—for instance, studying with classmates rather than alone. In terms of intrinsic motivation, rewards might not be enough to motivate an individual (Rawsthorne & Elliot, 1999), especially if the postponed activity does not address aspects that are

experienced as personally meaningful. Hence, treatment interventions that increase one』s awareness of values might be essential to increasing commitment (Hayes, Luoma, Bond, Masuda, & Lillis, 2006), that is, to clarify the meaning of performing a specific task. This could be particularly important regarding existential questions associated with procrastination, most notably among students (e.g., the relationship between striving toward a university degree and the individual』s own values)

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