托福培訓丨托福寫作中不可小視的舉例論證

說到論證方法,很多同學都能如數家珍,「因果論證」、「舉例論證」、「對比論證」似乎是所有考生都能說道說道的三大基本論證,但所有考生真的都明白論證中的要點及陷阱嗎?很明顯答案是否定的。拿舉例論證來說,對於很多同學,舉例論證都可以稱之為那個最熟悉的陌生論證。

我們不妨先看一道題目,這是2010年9月24日北美的一道考題:

Do you agree or disagree with the following statement?

Colleges or universities should offer more courses to prepare students for the future before they start working.

我們先從不同的角度來分析一下以上題目:首先從話題類別上說,上題屬於教育類話題,並且是大學教育類的話題;從答題角度來說,這道題可以歸屬為利弊分析類的題目,需要我們討論的是「大學提供更多courses」的利弊,題干中其他細節,即目的狀語和時間狀語,都告訴我們一些重要信息,通過這兩個狀語中的信息,我們可以判斷出題目中所提及的「courses」並不是大學中普通的學術課程,而應該是跟學生接下來的職場生活相關聯的課程。破題至此,我們來看一下一位考生所寫的一個主體段落(該考生立場為agree):

First of all, by learning courses offered by universities or colleges before starting work, students can be more familiar with their future working environment, and therefore easily take up the tasks their bosses give them. (S1) For example, working with a computer is common nowadays. (S2) Many students even do not know how to use some common software set in computer, such as Microsoft Office and WPS. (S3) Of course, they have no choice but to be fired. (S4) (73 words)

上文段落一共四句話,第一句話為本段的topic sentence, 並且在這一句中已經開始展開論證:「這些就業前的課程可以讓學生更熟悉他們未來的工作,也因此能容易擔當起老闆所分配的任務。」;接下來第二句、第三句和第四句由For example開頭,看似組成了一個例子,目的自然是為了論證自己的論點,但上文中的例子真的有論證本段的觀點嗎?

我們先來討論一下例子的作用。每當問到這個問題,很多學生都會給出「支持」這兩個字的答案。沒錯,例子確實是起到支持作用的,因此例子是一種重要論據,但是很多學生不知道的是,例子到底應該支持些什麼。我們不妨再來打個比方,看一下以下兩個句子:

1. 我喜歡吃零食,比如爆米花、巧克力、冰淇淋。

2. 吃零食讓我快樂。比如,每次吃巧克力,我就覺得所有的不開心都會煙消雲散。

不難發現,上面兩個句子中都用到了一個所有人都熟悉的詞「比如」,大家都知道,這個字眼在寫作中用於舉例子,考生們最常用的即為「for example」和「such as」, 而且很明顯,在上面的兩個句子中,第一個「比如」對應的應該是英文中的「for example」或「such as」, 而第二句中的「比如」對應的是「for example」。但是細想一下,這兩個例子所起到的作用明顯不太相同:第一句中的三個名詞性的例子,為的是解釋「零食」這個詞的具體內容,而第二句中的例子,證明的是「零食怎麼讓我快樂」。所以我們不難得出一個結論,即例子可以是一種細節展開,也可以是一個論證支持。那麼在我們的托福作文中,究竟應該用一種細節展開型的例子,還是應該用一種論證型的例子呢?答案當然是皆可,但是兩者的作用不同,到底怎麼用,自然是取決於作者自己了。

回歸到我們剛剛的段落上來。很明顯在上文的段落中,作者對於例子的設置是為了支持一個觀點。我們拋開文中的例子來思考下,如果支持現在的觀點,我們應該怎樣舉例子。

Topic Sentence: students can be more familiar with their future working environment, and therefore easily take up the tasks their bosses give them.

其實這位考生在第一句就已經完成了一個基本的因果邏輯:課程 → 熟悉未來工作 → 很容易擔當老闆布置的任務。接下來如果舉例子來論證自己的思路正確的話,需要做的事情是將整個邏輯論述完整。我們的例證思路可能是:「什麼樣的課程,或課程中的哪些環節會讓人熟悉未來的工作,具體是哪些方面的工作,然後怎樣擔當起了老闆布置的什麼樣的任務呢?」將疑問的地方補充完整,我們可能有如下的舉例方法:

Sample 1:

For example, in the working preparation courses in our university, I, a so-called office lady now, learnt how to use basic office facilities, such as printers, photocopiers, fax machines and so on, which may be strange to a fresh graduate. Therefore, I have never been bothered with the trifles taking place in such aspects, which means I can adapt to the working environment faster and focus more on things assigned more important.

我們再來回頭對比看一下原文中的例子:

For example, working with a computer is common nowadays.(S2) Many students even do not know how to use some common software set in computer, such as Microsoft Office and WPS.(S3) Of course, they have no choice but to be fired.(S4)

這個例子中的第一句話交代了一個背景:使用電腦非常普遍。第二句話說明一個現狀:很多學生現在甚至不會使用微軟的辦公軟體還有WPS。第三句總結:所以他們理所當然的無路可走,只能被開除。

看完這個部分,我們對比著來思考幾個問題:

1. 這個例子跟題目中的courses有什麼關係嗎?

2. 例子能起到證明立場的作用嗎?

3. 三句話中間有嚴謹的邏輯銜接關係嗎?

很明顯,這個例子中對於題乾的關鍵詞隻字未提,完全看不到courses的身影,不僅如此,這個例子中更沒有提到對於working environment以及所謂的「tasks」; 另外,三句話中式思維非常明顯,句子之間並沒有清晰的邏輯關係,特別是第二句和第三句之間的邏輯銜接更顯得有些霸王硬上弓,不會辦公軟體就一定要無路可走、只能被開除嗎?如此一分析,可以看出,該考生雖然會用for example, 但所舉的例子跟觀點句基本可以說沒有半毛錢關係。

我們將上文修改後的例子和中心句銜接在一起,並稍加改進,形成一個基本正確的主體段如下:

First of all, by learning courses offered by universities or colleges before starting work, students can be more familiar with their future working environment, and therefore easily take up the tasks their bosses give them. For example, in the working preparation courses in our university, I, a so-called office lady now, learnt how to use basic office facilities, such as printers, photocopiers, fax machines and so on, which may be strange to a common graduate. Therefore, I have never been bothered with the trifles taking place in such aspects, which means I can adapt to the working environment faster and focus more on things assigned more important. It is obviously easy to imagine that thanks to the courses, students could have a better start when their identities change. (128 words)

由此,我們總結出舉例論證中的第一個常見錯誤:例子不能證明觀點。對應的提示即為,例子需要對整個觀點起到呼應及支撐的作用。

我們再來看另外一道題目:

Do you agree or disagree with the following statement?

It is important to know events from all over the world even if they are unlikely to have any effects on your daily life.

這是一道很經典的老題了,曾經多次出現在北美及大陸的考題中(如070429, 141018等)。我們首先依舊從不同的角度分析一下這道題:從題目類別上來說,這道題可以歸屬為個人生活類題目,並且題目並沒有明確地限定「people」的具體內容;從答題角度來看,這道題可以歸類為利弊分析型題目,無論是否同意,考生重點需要論述的是「通曉世界大事」的利與避;從題目內容中看,讓步狀語從句的存在讓整個題干變得不是那麼單純,很明顯對題干中的「events」進行一個加強:題目中的events不僅僅指普通的events, 更指那些可能對我們生活沒有任何影響的事件。

對題目進行了一番基本的解析之後,我們還是來看一位考生寫的一個段落(該考生立場為agree):

First of all, knowing these events can make us more popular at work or in school. It is obvious that our horizons can be broadened more and our insights towards different things can be much deeper. Gradually, we can have a large stock of knowledge. When chatting with others, we can easily find topics to avoid awkward silence and make others feel that we are knowledgeable. So they will be more ready to communicate with us. For example, my cousin usually likes to pay attention to current affairs. When his classmates ask him some events, he can always help them analyze the whole events. So his classmates all like him very much. In contrast, if we know nothing with the events that happen all over the world, it may be difficult for us to find things to talk, so few people will be willing to have a conversation with us. (142 words)

拋開語言不談,我們來仔細分析一下上面段落的結構。相比於剛剛看到的另一個考生的段落,我們能夠清晰地看出,這位考生的段落層次是很清晰的,在連接詞的使用上也是清晰、靈活且正確的:First of all, … It is obvious that … Gradually, … So … For example, … So … In contrast, if …, will … 如上這些銜接方式把整個段落分成了四個層次(如上文的四種顏色),該考生整個段落的寫作思路也非常的簡單明了:中心句-解釋(因果論證)-舉例-對比/假設,儘管最後的對比/假設稍顯啰嗦。

下面來重點分析下她舉例論證的部分。首先需要思考的是,例子是否論證了前面的論述。

簡單地過一下文章的內容,大意為:知曉這些事件能讓我們在工作單位或學校更受歡迎。很明顯我們視野能夠更開闊,同時洞察力也更深刻。慢慢地我們就能掌握很多知識。這樣跟別人聊天的時候就很容易找到話題,來避免尷尬的沉默,而且別人也會覺得我們知識淵博,所以也就會很願意跟我們聊天。例子的部分說:我的表哥平時很關注時事,他的同學問他一些事情的時候,他總能幫他們分析整件事,所以他的同學都很喜歡他。

乍一看,我們會覺得這個例子是扣題準確的,因為它基本回應了前面的幾句論述。但細想下,其實有些地方還是不太對的,哪裡呢?請注意幾個字眼:… pay attention to current affairs … some events … analyze the whole events … 這幾個字給人些什麼感覺?無疑有種說了跟沒說似的感覺:什麼affair?哪件event?怎麼分析的?為什麼就被喜歡了呢?顯然這種缺乏細節的例子會讓人有種感覺叫做,把前面的論述套上了cousin重新倒了一遍車軲轆話的感覺。

這裡即是我要說的第二個問題:缺乏細節的泛泛例子。怎麼寫就好了呢?答案即添加細節。

Sample 2:

For example, my cousin usually likes to pay attention to current affairs, such as the US presidential election and the latest progression of Syrian Wars. Even though these affairs seem to be far away from our life, he could clearly elaborate and analyze the backgrounds, reasons and effects of these events. Thanks to this, he gains a great deal of popularity and admiration in his school and even his teachers are willing to discuss relevant events with him.

請注意對比一下上文和之前例子的部分,很明顯紅字的部分為一些細節性表達,讓整個例子有實際內容,而不是泛泛而談。重新整理過的整個段落如下:

First of all, knowing these events can make us more popular at work or in school. It is obvious that our horizons can be broadened more and our insights towards different things can be much deeper. So when chatting with others, we can easily find topics to avoid awkward silence and make others feel that we are knowledgeable. For example, my cousin usually likes to pay attention to current affairs, such as the US presidential election and the latest progression of Syrian Wars. Even though these affairs seem to be far away from our life, he could clearly elaborate and analyze the backgrounds, reasons and effects of these events. Thanks to this, he gains a great deal of popularity and admiration in his school and even his teachers are willing to discuss relevant events with him. That is to say, being well-informed brings more benefits other than being well-informed itself. (150 words)

以上即為在舉例論證中容易被忽略的兩個要點,希望考生們能夠不僅會用for example, 更能用對exemplification。

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