政治迫害是不是在很多國家都出現過？

01-28

最近看了德國的《竊聽風暴》，韓國的《辯護人》，感覺都有把歷史或多或少的真實反映出來，是不是很過多家都有過政治迫害，這種行為是否可以用路西法效應來理解？而中國是否有類似的電影呢？

中國有《芙蓉鎮》《活著》《藍風箏》《悲情城市》等。政治迫害每個國家在信息不發達，但有信仰牢靠時都會存在，但在當今的社會，我們更要小心的當權者的空口白話，比如某人的「今年是中國最艱難的一年」連說5年。這種現象我們現在還有，還有一些混帳的項目，比如感動中國人物的電影計劃。如果什麼時候我們的價值觀被消費殆盡，被透支，人會徹底喪失信心，那將是另一個悲劇，而且這個悲劇，中國起碼幾十年來都沒經歷過。如果發生，危害絕不亞於一次政治迫害

Zersetzung （德語，不同的翻譯有：分解，腐蝕，暗中破壞，生物降解或溶解）是一種東德秘密警察斯塔西的心理技巧，用來壓制政治對手。這種「Zersetzung措施」在一本1976年的關於警察程序的指令框架中有所定義，在所謂「作戰程序」的背景中使用。它們取代了烏布利希時代（Walter Ulbricht）的全面恐怖。Zersetzung壓迫的實際操作由大量控制和心理操縱的秘密方法構成，操作對象包括目標的個人關係，為了實現這些操作，斯塔西依賴於它的非正式合作者網路（線人網路）、凌駕於各機構之上的國家權力以及作戰心理學。斯塔西利用定向的心理攻擊設法剝奪持異議者任何「敵對行動」的機會。

由於東德轉變之後眾多斯塔西文件的出版，Zersetzung的使用得到充分證實。大約數千或者10,000人是Zersetzung的受害者，其中5,000人遭受了不可逆性損傷。德國為這些受害者設立了補償性養老金。

定義

斯塔西，或者全稱國家安全部（德語：Ministerium für Staatssicherheit, MfS）在它1985年的政治特工詞典中是這樣定義Zersetzung的:

「... 為了有效地與顛覆活動作鬥爭，國家安全部所採用的一種操作方法，尤其是用於操作治療。利用Zersetzung可以影響經營不同政治活動的消極敵對的個人，特別是他們傾向和信仰的消極敵對的方面，因此這些人被拋棄並且一點一點改變，同時，如果適用的話，敵對消極勢力之間的矛盾和差異將會被會打開、利用和加強。

Zersetzung的目的是分裂、癱瘓、瓦解和孤立敵對消極勢力，是為了預防性地阻礙敵對消極活動，為了極大限制或者完全制止他們，並且如果適用的話，為一次政治和意識形態的重建準備場地。

Zersetzung相當於「作戰程序」和其它阻礙敵對集會的預防活動的一個直接構成元素。執行Zersetzung的主力軍是非官方合作者（線人）。實施Zersetzung的前提是計劃、準備、完成敵對活動的信息和重要證據，也包括Zersetzung的切入點。

Zersetzung必須是建立在事實的根源分析和具體目標的精確定義的基礎上的。Zersetzung必須以一種統一的受監督的方式執行，它的結果必須記錄下來。

Zersetzung的政治爆炸力提高了保密工作的要求。」

政治背景

德意志民主共和國（GDR 民主德國）在它存在的第一個10年里主要通過刑法壓制政治反對派，指控他們煽動戰爭或者號召抵制。為了抵消1963年修建柏林牆導致的國際孤立，民主德國終止了司法恐怖。特別是從1971年埃里希·昂納克時代（Erich Honecker）開始，斯塔西加緊了它拋開刑法懲罰異議分子行為的努力。關鍵動機是民主德國渴望國際認可，並且在1960年代末它渴望同西德改善關係。實際上民主德國致力於遵守聯合國憲章和赫爾辛基協議，也包括1972年同聯邦德國簽訂的基本條約，為了尊重人權，或者至少是表達這樣的意圖。德國統一社會黨政權（東德政權）因此決定減少政治犯數量，實行不需要監禁或法庭判決的鎮壓作為補償。

實際操作

斯塔西本質上把Zersetzung作為一種心理壓迫和迫害的手段。它把作戰心理學的研究成果配置進斯塔西法學院的方法中，並應用到政治對手身上，意圖暗中削弱他們的自信和自尊。它設計Zersetzung行動，使目標遭遇反覆失望來恐嚇和動搖他們，通過干涉和破壞他們同他人的關係來使他們在社會上受到孤立，就如同是社會阻抑（social undermining）。斯塔西實施Zersetzung的目的是為了引發受害者的個人危機，使他們過於灰心喪氣和心理苦惱以至於沒有時間和精力來進行反政府活動。斯塔西故意隱藏他們作為行動策劃者的角色。作家Jürgen Fuchs是Zersetzung的受害者，他寫了自己的經歷，其中他用「心理犯罪」和「一種針對人類靈魂的攻擊」來形容斯塔西的所作所為。

儘管Zersetzung技巧在1950年代末已在事實上確立，但直到1970年代中期才以科學方法的形式定義下來，而且只有到1970年代和1980年代那時才開始系統地實施。很難確定有多少人被盯上，因為資料已經過相當大程度的、刻意的編輯掩蓋；然而，眾所周知的是，Zersetzung的手段在一定範圍內變化，有很多不同部門實施它們。總的來說，存在這樣一個比例，即每個被盯上的團體有4名或5名授權的Zersetzung操作員，每個被盯上的人有3名操作員。一些資料表明Zersetzung的「長期受害者」大約有5,000人。在斯塔西研究法學的學院里，發表的以Zersetzung為主題的論文數量是兩位數。它也有一本50頁的Zersetzung綜合教學手冊，其中包含眾多斯塔西的實踐案例。

實施機構

幾乎所有斯塔西部門都參與了Zersetzung 行動，儘管斯塔西的柏林XX指揮部和地區及市政府分部辦事處的領導是首要的。斯塔西首腦和XX營的職能是保持對宗教社團、文化與媒體機構、其它政黨、民主德國很多隸屬於執政黨的大規模社會組織、體育、教育和衛生機構的監視 – 有效覆蓋公民生活的所有方面。斯塔西利用了東德封閉的社會系統內部可供他們使用的手段，並把它的行為作為東德封閉社會系統環境的一部分。一個已建立的、有政治目的的合作網路為斯塔西提供了大量機會介入諸如制裁專業人士和學生這樣的事情：把他們從協會和運動俱樂部中開除，偶爾讓人民警察（Volkspolizei民主德國的准軍事國家警察）拘捕他們，也安排拒絕發放他們去社會主義國家的旅行許可，或者安排在不需要簽證的捷克斯洛伐克和波蘭邊境入境處拒絕給他們放行。各種各樣的合作者包括地方政府分支機構、大學、職業管理機構、住房管理機構、公共儲蓄銀行以及在一些案例中的主管醫師。斯塔西的三線（觀察）、26營（電話和房屋監視）和M（郵政通信）部門為Zersetzung 手法設計提供了必要的背景信息，而32營則設法獲取所需要的技術。

斯塔西與其它東方陣營國家的特務機關合作實施Zersetzung。舉個例子，斯塔西在1960年代早期與波蘭特務機關合作對付耶和華見證會（Jehovahs Witnesses）組織的分會，這在後來被稱為「內部Zersetzung」（內部顛覆）。

對付個人

斯塔西在（持異議者的）活動前、活動中、活動後都會應用Zersetzung，或者以此替代監禁來懲罰被盯上的人。一般而言，「作戰程序」的目的不是為了收集證據控告目標，也不是為了能夠開啟刑事訴訟程序。斯塔西更喜歡把「Zersetzung措施」在某種程度上視作一種不方便利用司法程序時所使用的手段，或者為了諸如民主德國國際形象這樣的政治理由。在某些情況下，斯塔西試圖故意引誘某個個體犯罪，例如Wolf Biermann（前東德詩人、創作型歌手）的情況：斯塔西用未成年人陷害他，希望他經不起誘惑，這樣的話他們就能對他提起刑事指控。他們研究的用於這種指控的罪行是非政治的，例如持有毒品，毒品走私或者販賣，盜竊，金融詐騙，以及強姦。

經證實的Zersetzung形式在1/76號指令中有所描述：

有系統地貶低目標的名聲、形象和聲譽，所用的信息資料一部分是真實的、可驗證的和丟人的，而另一部分是假的、貌似可信的、難以反駁的以及同樣丟人的；有系統地安排目標在社會和職業上的失敗，目的是摧毀個人自信；[...] 激發對未來看法的懷疑；激發團體內的不信任和相互懷疑[...]；設置空間和臨時障礙使得團體成員不能或者至少很難相互聯繫[...]，比如[...]指派遙遠的工作地。

—1976年1月「作戰程序」發展第1/76號指令

以間諜活動收集的情報為基礎，斯塔西建立了「社會關係圖」和「心理特徵圖」，並將其應用於Zersetzung的心理形式。他們利用個人特點，例如同性戀，也包括被盯人所應有的性格弱點 — 比如職業失敗，父母失職，色情興趣，離婚，酗酒，依賴藥物，犯罪傾向，對某種收集或遊戲的熱情，或者與極右圈子有聯繫 — 或者甚至是對傾倒在熟人圈裡的謠言感覺羞恥的掩飾。在斯塔西看來，Zersetzung措施和個性相結合是最有效果的；必須避免全部「照搬照抄」。

此外，Zersetzung方法包括公開的、隱藏的和偽裝的間諜活動；拆信和竊聽電話；侵犯私人財產；操縱車輛；以及甚至給食物下毒和使用假藥。某些斯塔西的合作者（線人）默認了Zersetzung受害者的自殺。

還不能完全確定斯塔西利用X射線引起它對手的長期健康問題。即便如此，Rudolf Bahro、Gerulf Pannach和Jürgen Fuchs三個重要的異議人士同時受到監禁，在兩年的時間間隔內都死於癌症。與此同時，前民主德國斯塔西檔案聯邦委員會（BStU）的一項研究根據現存文件否認了像冒用X射線的這樣的情況，並且只提到放射源孤立的無心的有害使用，例如為了標記文件。

斯塔西在目標毫不知情的情況下用目標的名義訂購產品、撥打急救電話來恐嚇他/她。為了威脅、恐嚇目標或者使目標得精神病，斯塔西確保自己能進入目標的住宅，並且通過添加、去除和修改物品來留下它出現過的可見痕迹。

對付團體和社會關係

斯塔西通過匿名的信件、電報和電話來操縱友情、愛情、婚姻及家庭的關係，也包括用令人難堪的照片，方式方法經常改變。用這種方式，父母和子女通常會有條不紊地按步驟相互變成陌生人。為了挑撥衝突和婚外情，斯塔西會安排特工進行色誘。

對於團體Zersetzung，斯塔西利用非官方合作者（線人）滲透團體，有時候也會利用未成年人。反對派團體的工作受到永久反對提議的阻礙，而且當要做決定時，和非官方合作者這一方無法達成一致。為了在團體內部播下不信任的種子，斯塔西使人相信某些成員是非官方合作者；而且斯塔西還通過散布謠言和操縱照片偽造與『非官方合作者』的不慎重舉動，或者把目標團體的成員安置在行政職位使人相信這是非官方合作者活動的一種獎勵。他們甚至通過賦予特權來喚起對某些成員的懷疑，例如住房或私家車。此外，只監禁某些團體成員也會產生懷疑。

措施的目標群體

斯塔西對個人和團體使用Zersetzung手段。民主德國的反對派有很多不同的來源，所以沒有特別相同的目標團體。因此Zersetzung的策略計劃會根據每個可知威脅的情況分別進行調整適應。不過斯塔西仍然定義了幾個主要目標團體：

· 申請集體簽證國外旅行的協會

· 批判政府的藝術家團體

· 宗教反對派團體

· 青年亞文化團體

· 支持以上團體的團體（人權與和平組織，那些輔助非法出境和叛逃活動的團體）

斯塔西也會偶爾利用Zersetzung對付那些被視為有害的非政治組織，例如望台協會（Watchtower Society）。

被Zersetzung行動盯上的名人包括Jürgen Fuchs, Gerulf Pannach, Rudolf Bahro, Robert Havemann, Rainer Eppelmann, Reiner Kunze, Gerd 和 Ulrike Poppe夫婦, 以及 Wolfgang Templin。

社會和司法過程

民主德國反對者Wolfgang Templin在意識到自己被盯上了之後，試圖使西方記者注意到斯塔西Zersetzung活動的細節。1977年《明鏡周刊》發表了分成5部分的一系列文章，「你會裂開！」，流亡人士Jürgen Fuchs在文章中這樣描述斯塔西的「作戰心理學」。斯塔西試圖抹黑Fuchs及相似文章的內容，輪番報道稱Fuchs對其職能有一種妄想症的觀點，意圖使《明鏡周刊》和其它媒體認為他正患有一種迫害情結。然而，斯塔西的辯解卻被斯塔西自己的官方文檔所駁斥，這些文檔在東德巨變後接受了檢查。

因為東德的一般人群和東德之外的人並不知道Zersetzung的本質和範圍，所以那些受Zersetzung影響的人對斯塔西惡毒手段的揭露遭到一定程度的懷疑。很多人至今仍表示無法理解斯塔西的合作者怎麼會參與如此不人道的行動。

由於「法無明文規定者不為罪」的原則，即使在1990年後，Zersetzung在整體上仍然沒有被視為非法，法庭無法對參與計劃和實施Zersetzung的行為採取行動。因為Zersetzung作為一種犯罪的具體法律定義不存在，只能報告一些這種手段的個人案例。即使是根據民主德國的法律，為了避免限制條款的情形，侵犯行為需要在其行使之後馬上向民主德國當局報告。很多受害者經歷了額外的困難，即斯塔西並沒有被認定是個人傷害和不幸的始作俑者。記載Zersetzung方法的官方文檔常常在法庭上無效，而且斯塔西銷毀了很多詳述Zersetzung實際執行的文件。

根據1990年康復法案中第17章a項的條款，Zersetzung操作的倖存者沒有接受經濟補償的資格，除非他們曾被拘留過至少180天。可證實的因被斯塔西作為目標受到系統性影響而導致職業相關損失和/或健康損害的案例，可以通過一部涉及解決侵權的法律追究，和根據行政法提出職業康復或康復的訴求一樣。這些法律規定推翻了民主德國政府機構的某些行政規章並且證明它們違反憲法。這符合1950年戰爭受害者救濟法案中詳細規定的社會平衡支付的條件。養老保險金和收入損失的平衡支付也適用於受持續迫害至少三年並且訴求者能夠證明有必要的案例。

然而，以上例子中，無論是提供斯塔西侵蝕受害者健康、私人財產、教育和職業領域的證據，還是得到斯塔西應該對Zersetzung操作直接造成的個人損害（包括精神傷害）負責的官方承認，受害者已經歷過的種種困難依然在阻礙著他們尋求正義。

技巧在現代的使用

俄羅斯秘密警察FSB（俄羅斯聯邦安全局）據報道稱使用聚眾圍攻（mobbing）的技巧對付外國外交官和記者。2015年6月，Glenn Greenwald出版的NSA（美國國家安全局）文件披露英國情報機構GCHQ 的JTRIG 團體隱蔽地操縱網上社區。這與JTRIG 的目標一致：通過敗壞他們名聲來「破壞、否認、貶低和瓦解」敵人，植入虛假信息以及關閉他們的通訊交流。

See also 請參閱

Mobbing 聚眾圍攻

Destabilisation 擾動

Gaslighting 煤氣燈操作

Mind control 精神控制

Microaggression theory 微攻擊理論

Mind games 心理遊戲

Power and control in abusive relationships 虐待關係中的權力和控制

Psychological warfare 心理戰

Stasi#Zersetzung 斯塔西#Zersetzung

COINTELPRO 反情報程序

Joint Threat Intelligence Research Group 共同威脅情報研究組

拓展閱讀

Annie Ring. After the Stasi: Collaboration and the Struggle for Sovereign Subjectivity in the Writing of German Unification. 280 pages, Bloomsbury Academic (October 22, 2015) ISBN 1472567609.

Max Hertzberg. Stealing the Future (The East Berlin Series) (Book 1), 242 pages, Wolf Press (August 8, 2015), ISBN 0993324703.

Josie McLellan. Love in the Time of Communism: Intimacy and Sexuality in the GDR. 250 pages, CambridgeUniversity Press (October 17, 2011), ISBN 0521727618

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Zersetzung

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zersetzung

Zersetzung (German; variously translated as decomposition, corrosion, undermining, biodegradation or dissolution) was a psychological technique of the East German secret police, the Stasi, and was used to silence political opponents. The "measures of Zersetzung", defined in the framework of a directive on police procedures in 1976,[1] were used in the context of so-called "operational procedures" (in German Operative Vorg?nge or OV). They replaced the overt terror of the Ulbricht era.

The practice of repression in Zersetzung comprised extensive and secret methods of control and psychological manipulation, including personal relationships of the target, for which the Stasi relied on its network of informal collaborators,[2] (in German inoffizielle Mitarbeiter or IM), the States power over institutions, and on operational psychology. Using targeted psychological attacks the Stasi tried to deprive a dissident of any chance of a "hostile action".

The use of Zersetzung is well documented due to numerous Stasi files published after East Germanys Wende. Several thousands or up to 10,000 individuals are estimated to have become victims[3]:217 5,000 of whom sustained irreversible damage.[4] Pensions for restitution have been created for the victims.

Definition

The Stasi, or Ministry for State Security (German: Ministerium für Staatssicherheit, MfS) by its full name, defined Zersetzung in its 1985 dictionary of political operatives as

"...a method of operation by the Ministry for State Security for an efficacious struggle against subversive activities, particularly in the treatment of operations. With Zersetzung one can influence hostile and negative individuals across different operational political activities, especially the hostile and negative aspects of their dispositions and beliefs, so these are abandoned and changed little by little, and, if applicable, the contradictions and differences between the hostile and negative forces would be laid open, exploited, and reinforced.

The goal of Zersetzung is the fragmentation, paralysis, disorganization, and isolation of the hostile and negative forces, in order to preventatively impede the hostile and negative activities, to largely restrict, or to totally avert them, and if applicable to prepare the ground for a political and ideological reestablishment.

Zersetzung is equally an immediate constitutive element of "operational procedures" and other preventive activities to impede hostile gatherings. The principal forces to execute Zersetzung are the inofficial collaborators. Zersetzung presupposes information and significant proof of hostile activities planned, prepared, and accomplished as well as anchor points corresponding to measures of Zersetzung.

Zersetzung must be produced on the basis of a root cause analysis of the facts and the exact definition of a concrete goal. Zersetzung must be executed in a uniform and supervised manner; its results must be documented.

The political explosive force of Zersetzung heightens demands regarding the maintenance of secrecy."[5]

Political context

During its first decade of existence the German Democratic Republic (GDR) subdued political opposition primarily through the penal code, by accusing them of incitement to war or of calls of boycott.[6] To counteract the international isolation of the GDR due to the construction of the Berlin wall in 1963, judicial terror was abandoned.[7] Since the debut of the Erich Honecker era in 1971 in particular, the Stasi intensified its efforts to punish dissident behaviors without using the penal code.[8] Important motives were the GDRs desire for international recognition and rapprochementwith West Germany at the end of the 1960s. In fact the GDR was committed to adhere to the U.N. Charter[9] and the Helsinki accords[10] as well as theBasic Treaty, 1972 signed with the Federal Republic of Germany,[11] to respect human rights, or at least it announced its intention as such. The regime of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany thus decided to reduce the number of political prisoners, which was compensated for by practicing repression without imprisonment or court judgements.[12][13]

In practice

The Stasi used Zersetzung essentially as a means of psychological oppression and persecution.[14] Findings of operational psychology,[15] were formulated into method at the Stasis College of Law (Juristische Hochschule der Staatssicherheit, or JHS), and applied to political opponents in an effort to undermine their self-confidence and self-esteem. Operations were designed to intimidate and destabilise them by subjecting them to repeated disappointment, and to socially alienate them by interfering with and disrupting their relationships with others as in social undermining. The aim was to induce personal crises in victims, leaving them too unnerved and psychologically distressed to have the time and energy for anti-government activism.[16] The Stasi intentionally concealed their role as mastermind of the operations.[17][18] Author Jürgen Fuchs was a victim of Zersetzung and wrote about his experience, describing the Stasis actions as 「psychosocial crime」, and 「an assault on the human soul」.[16]

Although its techniques had been established effectively by the late 1950s, Zersetzung was not defined in terms of a scientific method until the mid-1970s, and only then began to be carried out in a systematic manner in the 1970s and 1980s.[19] It is difficult to determine how many people were targeted, since the sources have been deliberately and considerably redacted; it is known, however, that tactics varied in scope, and that a number of different departments implemented them. Overall there was a ratio of four or five authorised Zersetzung operators for each targeted group, and three for each individual.[20] Some sources indicate that around 5,000 people were 「persistently victimised」 by Zersetzung.[4] At the College of Legal Studies, the number of dissertations submitted on the subject of Zersetzung was in double figures.[21] It also had a comprehensive 50-page Zersetzung teaching manual, which included numerous examples of its practice.[22]

Implementing institutions

Almost all Stasi departments were involved in Zersetzung operations, although first and foremost the lead of the Stasis directorate XX (Hauptabteilung XX) in Berlin, and its divisional offices in regional and municipal government. The function of the head and Abteilung XXs was to maintain surveillance of religious communities; cultural and media establishments; alternative political parties; the GDRs many political establishment-affiliated mass social organisations; sport; and education and health services - effectively covering all aspects of civic life.[23]The Stasi made use of the means available to them within, and as a circumstance of, the GDRs closed social system. An established, politically motivated collaborative network (politisch-operatives Zusammenwirken, or POZW) provided them with extensive opportunities for interference in such situations as the sanctioning of professionals and students, expulsion from associations and sports clubs, and occasional arrests by the Volkspolizei[17] (the GDRs quasi-military national police). Refusal of permits for travel to socialist states, or denial of entry at Czechoslovakian and Polish border crossings where no visa requirement existed, were also arranged. The various collaborators (Partnern des operativen Zusammenwirkens) included branches of regional government, university and professional management, housing administrative bodies, the Sparkassepublic savings bank, and in some cases head physicians.[24] The Stasis Linie III (Observation), Abteilung 26 (Telephone and room surveillance) and M(Postal communications) departments provided essential background information for the designing of Zersetzung techniques, with Abteilung 32 procuring the required technology.[25]

The Stasi collaborated with the secret services of other Eastern Bloc countries to implement Zersetzung. One such example was the Polish secret services co-operating against branches of the Jehovahs Witnesses organisation in the early 1960s, which would come to be known[26] as "innere Zersetzung"[27] (internal subversion).

Against individuals

The Stasi applied Zersetzung before, during, after, or instead of incarcerating the targeted individual. The "operational procedures" did not have as an aim, in general, to gather evidence for charges against the target, or to be able to begin criminal prosecutions. The Stasi considered the "measures of Zersetzung" rather in part as an instrument that was used when judiciary procedures were not convenient, or for political reasons such as the international image of the GDR.[28][29] In certain cases, the Stasi attempted meanwhile to knowingly inculpate an individual, as for example in the case of Wolf Biermann: The Stasi set him up with minors, hoping that he would allow himself to be seduced, and that they could then pursue criminal charges.[30] The crimes that they researched for such accusations were non-political, as for example drug possession, trafficking in customs or currencies, theft, financial fraud, and rape.[31]

The proven forms of Zersetzung are described in the directive 1/76:

a systematic degradation of reputation, image, and prestige in a database on one part true, verifiable and degrading, and on the other part false, plausible, irrefutable, and always degrading; a systematic organization of social and professional failures for demolishing the self-confidence of the individual; [...] stimulation of doubts with respect to perspectives on the future; stimulation of mistrust or mutual suspicion among groups [...]; putting in place spatial and temporal obstacles rendering impossible or at least difficult the reciprocal relations of a group [...], for example by [...] assigning distant workplaces. —Directive No. 1/76 of January 1976 for the development of "operational procedures".[33]

Beginning with intelligence obtained by espionage, the Stasi established "sociograms" and "psychograms" which it applied for the psychological forms of Zersetzung. They exploited personal traits, such as homosexuality, as well as supposed character weaknesses of the targeted individual — for example a professional failure, negligence of parental duties, pornographic interests, divorce, alcoholism, dependence on medications, criminal tendencies, passion for a collection or a game, or contacts with circles of the extreme right — or even the veil of shame from the rumors poured out upon ones circle of acquaintances.[34][35] From the point of view of the Stasi, the measures were the most fruitful when they were applied in connection with a personality; all "schematism" had to be avoided.[34]

Moreover, methods of Zersetzung included espionage, overt, hidden, and feigned; opening letters and listening to telephone calls; encroachments on private property; manipulation of vehicles; and even poisoning food and using false medications.[36] Certain collaborators of the Stasi tacitly took into account the suicide of victims of Zersetzung.[37]

It has not been definitely established that the Stasi used x-rays to provoke long-term health problems in its opponents.[38] That said, Rudolf Bahro, Gerulf Pannach, and Jürgen Fuchs, three important dissidents who had been imprisoned at the same time, died of cancer within an interval of two years.[39] A study by the Federal Commissioner for the Records of the State Security Service of the former GDR (Bundesbeauftragte für die Unterlagen des Staatssicherheitsdienstes der ehemaligen Deutschen Demokratischen Republik or BStU) has meanwhile rejected on the basis of extant documents such as fraudulent use of x-rays, and only mentions isolated and unintentional cases of the harmful use of sources of radiation, for example to mark documents.[40]

In the name of the target, the Stasi made little announcements, ordered products, and made emergency calls, to terrorize him/her.[41][42] To threaten or intimidate or cause psychoses the Stasi assured itself of access to the targets living quarters and left visible traces of its presence, by adding, removing, and modifying objects.[31]

Against groups and social relations

The Stasi manipulated relations of friendship, love, marriage, and family by anonymous letters, telegrams and telephone calls as well as compromising photos, often altered.[43] In this manner, parents and children were supposed to systematically become strangers to one another.[44] To provoke conflicts and extramarital relations the Stasi put in place targeted seductions by Romeo agents.[30]

For the Zersetzung of groups, it infiltrated them with unofficial collaborators, sometimes minors.[45] The work of opposition groups was hindered by permanent counter-propositions and discord on the part of unofficial collaborators when making decisions.[46] To sow mistrust within the group, the Stasi made believe that certain members were unofficial collaborators; moreover by spreading rumors and manipulated photos,[47] the Stasi feigned indiscretions with unofficial collaborators, or placed members of targeted groups in administrative posts to make believe that this was a reward for the activity of an unofficial collaborator.[30] They even aroused suspicions regarding certain members of the group by assigning privileges, such as housing or a personal car.[30] Moreover, the imprisonment of only certain members of the group gave birth to suspicions.[46]

Target groups for measures

The Stasi used Zersetzung tactics on individuals and groups. There was no particular homogeneous target group, as opposition in the GDR came from a number of different sources. Tactical plans were thus separately adapted to each perceived threat.[48] The Stasi nevertheless defined several main target groups:[17]

· associations of people making collective visa applications for travel abroad

· artists groups critical of the government

· religious opposition groups

· youth subculture groups

· groups supporting the above (human rights and peace organisations, those assisting illegal departure from the GDR, and expatriate and defector movements).

The Stasi also occasionally used Zersetzung on non-political organisations regarded as undesirable, such as the Watchtower Society.[49]

Prominent individuals targeted by Zersetzung operations included Jürgen Fuchs, Gerulf Pannach, Rudolf Bahro, Robert Havemann, Rainer Eppelmann,Reiner Kunze, husband and wife Gerd and Ulrike Poppe, and Wolfgang Templin.

Social and juridicial process

Once aware of his own status as a target, GDR opponent Wolfgang Templin tried, with some success, to bring details of the Stasis Zersetzungactivities to the attention of western journalists.[50] In 1977 Der Spiegel published a five-part article series, 「Du sollst zerbrechen!」 ("Youre going to crack!"), by the exiled Jürgen Fuchs, in which he describes the Stasis 「operational psychology」. The Stasi tried to discredit Fuchs and the contents of similar articles, publishing in turn claims that he had a paranoid view of its function,[51] and intending that Der Spiegel and other media would assume he was suffering from a persecution complex.[50][52] This, however, was refuted by the official Stasi documents examined after Die Wende (the political power shift in the GDR in 1989-90).

Because the scale and nature of Zersetzung were unknown both to the general population of the GDR and to people abroad, revelations of the Stasis malicious tactics were met with some degree of disbelief by those affected.[53] Many still nowadays express incomprehension at how the Stasis collaborators could have participated in such inhuman actions.[53]

Since Zersetzung as a whole, even after 1990, was not deemed to be illegal because of the principle of nulla poena sine lege (no penalty without law), actions against involvement in either its planning or implementation were not enforceable by the courts.[54] Because this specific legal definition of Zersetzung as a crime didnt exist,[55] only individual instances of its tactics could be reported. Acts which even according to GDR law were offences (such as the violation of Briefgeheimnis, the secrecy of correspondence) needed to have been reported to the GDR authorities soon after having been committed in order not to be subject to a statute of limitations clause.[56] Many of the victims experienced the additional complication that the Stasi was not identifiable as the originator in cases of personal injury and misadventure. Official documents in whichZersetzung methods were recorded often had no validity in court, and the Stasi had many files detailing its actual implementation destroyed.[57]

Unless they had been detained for at least 180 days, survivors of Zersetzung operations, in accordance with §17a of a 1990 rehabilitation act (theStrafrechtlichen Rehabilitierungsgesetzes, or StrRehaG), are not eligible for financial compensation. Cases of provable, systematically effected targeting by the Stasi, and resulting in employment-related losses and/or health damage, can be pursued under a law covering settlement of torts (Unrechtsbereinigungsgesetz, or 2. SED-UnBerG) as claims either for occupational rehabilitation or rehabilitation under administrative law. These overturn certain administrative provisions of GDR institutions and affirm their unconstitutionality. This is a condition for the social equalisation payments specified in the Bundesversorgungsgesetz (the war victims relief act of 1950). Equalisation payments of pension damages and for loss of earnings can also be applied for in cases where victimisation continued for at least three years, and where claimants can prove need.[58] The above examples of seeking justice have, however, been hindered by various difficulties victims have experienced, both in providing proof of the Stasis encroachment into the areas of health, personal assets, education and employment, and in receiving official acknowledgement that the Stasi was responsible for personal damages (including psychic injury) as a direct result of Zersetzung operations.[59]

Modern use of techniques

Russias secret police, the FSB, has been reported to use mobbing techniques against foreign diplomats and journalists.[60] In June 2015, NSA files published by Glenn Greenwald revealed details of the JTRIG group at British intelligence agency GCHQ covertly manipulating online communities.[61]This is in line with JTRIGs goal: to "destroy, deny, degrade [and] disrupt" enemies by "discrediting" them, planting misinformation and shutting down their communications.[62]